Alcohol Consumption, but Not Physical Activity or Smoking, Contribute To Advanced Forms of Diabetic Retinopathy: A Case-Control Study

Elina Varis¹, Markku J. Savolainen², Jaana Penna^3,4 and M. Johanna Liinamaa^1,2*

¹Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

²Department of Internal Medicine, Biocenter Oulu and Clinical Research Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

³Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland

⁴Health Center of the City of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

^*Corresponding Author: Dr. M. Johanna Liinamaa, MD, Ph.D, Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oulu, P.O.Box 5000, 90014 Oulu, Finland, Tel: +358-8-315 3727, Fax: +358-8-330 122 Email: