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Entomology, Ornithology & Herpetology: Current Research

Entomology, Ornithology & Herpetology: Current Research
Open Access

ISSN: 2161-0983

+44 1478 350008

Review Article - (2020)Volume 9, Issue 1

The Caspian Tern Hydropogne caspia in Tanzania

Neil Edward Baker*
 
*Correspondence: Mr. Neil Edward Baker, Tanzania Bird Atlas, Tanzania, Tel: +255 753-513603, Email:

Author info »

Abstract

Prior to the late 1980s the Caspian Tern was considered a vagrant to coastal Tanzania. Since the early 1990s numbers wintering along the coast have continued to increase to the extent that there are now approximately 700 birds spending their non-breeding season north of 8 degrees south. Data from regular counts at key sites suggests that four roost sites hold more than 100 birds each. It is suggested that these birds are from the poorly known Malagasy population estimated at 1,000 to 2,000 birds with a 1% level of just 15 (Wetlands International 2012). If this is the case these counts represent either a major shift in the behavior of these birds or an undocumented increase in the size of the population. If the former then Tanzania now seasonally hosts approximately 50% of the population with four sites holding more than 6% and as such they qualify as shadow Ramsar sites.

Keywords

Caspian Tern; Hydropogne caspia; Hovering bird; Breeding season

Caspian Tern

Caspian Terns usually feed singularly close to shore or over the reef using salt pans for roosting at high tide when they concentrate on the bunds and are more easily counted. Occasionally sea water is pumped into the salt pans at high tide and the terns exploit the small fish that become available. This allows photographic opportunities such as this hovering individual. Note the dark-centered secondaries and dark tail feathers that suggest a first-winter bird, as do the much worn outer primaries. Note the active wing moult with 6 old outer primaries on the left wing contrasting with the paler grey new inner primaries. Egg laying in the Malagasy Region occurs from late May through to August when counts on the Tanzanian coast are at their lowest (Figure 1).

Entomology-Ornithology-Herpetology-hovering

Figure 1. Bird hovering (Caspian Tern 16 March 2014 Bagamoyo, Tanzania).

Since at least there has been an increasing non-breeding population of Caspian Terns along the coast of Tanzania which likely now numbers more than 600 birds. But, where might these birds have come from? There are only three possibilities [1].

• Birds from Western Palaearctic breeding grounds that are now wintering further south.

• Birds from an expanding South African breeding population that are now wintering further north or

• Birds from the poorly known breeding population on Madagascar.

Baker [2] speculated that “They are unlikely to be from the southern populations in Madagascar and South Africa but this cannot be ruled out”. This species has, until quite recently, been a rare bird on the coast of Tanzania. Britton and Brown [3] could only refer to Harvey [4] who saw a single bird in Dar es Salaam on 17 December 1972 and two birds at Bagamoyo on 5 March 1973.

Britton [5] had nothing to add to these two records and only reported two records for coastal Kenya south of Mida Creek and gives a peak wintering population from Malindi at 25-35 birds in December-February. Fuggles-Couchman [6] adds two records from near Dar es Salaam in October 1956. The Tanzania Atlas Database currently holds 187 records for this species from 45 observers. Table 1 shows the details of 157 of these records. The other records being duplicates or no count so of lesser value.

Locality Day Month Year Count Observer Reference
Dar es Salaam   10 1956 2 N.R. Fuggles-Couchman Fuggles-Couchman 1984
Dar es Salaam 17 12 1972 1 W. G. Harvey Harvey 1973
Bagamoyo 5 3 1973 2 W.G. Harvey Harvey 1973
Dar es Salaam   4 1982 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Dar es Salaam 16 9 1986 2 Z. Batia TBAP database
Rufiji Delta 23 2 1988 196 T. Bregnaballe Bregnaballe et al. 1990
at sea 70 km south of RD   2 1988 7 T. Bregnaballe Bregnaballe et al. 1990
RD Simba Urang   2 1993 30 E. Pollard TBAP database
Rufiji Delta   3 1993   E. Pollard TBAP database
Dar es Salaam   3 1994 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Dar es Salaam   9 1994 1 T. Lemberg TBAP database
Tanga   11 1994 1 K. Shurcliffe TBAP database
Mkwaja   12 1994 1 K. Shurcliffe TBAP database
Tanga   1 1995 1 K. Shurcliffe Baker 1997
Kama River mouth   1 1995 10 K. Shurcliffe Baker 1997
Lake Sagara   1 1995 1 H. Meltoft Baker 1997
Tanga Kigombe   12 1995   K. Shurcliffe TBAP database
Rufiji River 18 1 1996 2 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Kilwa Kivinje   1 1996 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Lake Chidya 13 2 1996 2 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Ruvuma River 12 2 1996 2 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Mnazi Bay   10 1996 1 S. Cavers TBAP database
Mnazi Bay   12 1996 1 S. Cavers TBAP database
Zanzibar Jambiani 10 4 1997   C. & T. Stuart Stuart & Stuart 1998
Zanzibar Paje 25 4 1997   C. & T. Stuart Stuart & Stuart 1998
Ushongo   11 1997   P. Oliver TBAP database
Bagamoyo   2 1998   F. Reid TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   1 1999   D. Peterson TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   2 1999   D. Peterson TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   12 1999   D. Peterson TBAP database
Musoma   9 1999   I. Shanni TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   1 2000   D. Peterson TBAP database
Rufiji Delta survey 19 12 2000 173 O. Nasirwa Nasirwa et al. 2001
RD Kiomboni 21 12 2000 38 O. Hamerlynck TBAP database
Ushongo   1 2001   P. Oliver TBAP database
Sonneratia 18 6 2001 15 O. Hamerlynck TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   12 2001   D. Peterson TBAP database
Saadani NP   12 2001   M. Butterfield TBAP database
RD Bumba River   11 2002   O. Hamerlynck TBAP database
Bagamoyo   1 2002   M. Butterfield TBAP database
Saadani NP 30 12 2002 2 S. Adinall TBAP database
Somanga 28 1 2003 1 S. Totterman TBAP database
Zanzibar 1 1 2003   P. Leonard TBAP database
Saadani NP 4 1 2003 1 S. Adinall TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 24 12 2003   D. Peterson TBAP database
Mafia Island 6 2 2003   B. Whitmore TBAP database
Saadani NP 28 2 2004 1 W. Suter TBAP database
Bagamoyo   4 2004   F. Reid TBAP database
Saadani NP   5 2004   F. Reid TBAP database
Wami River 3 4 2004 1 D. Peterson TBAP database
Musoma   9 2004 1 I. Shanni TBAP database
Speke Bay Lodge 10 1 2005 1 M. Vattulainen TBAP database
Saadani salt works 10 1 2005 100 J. Olssen TBAP database
Kajanjo village 12 1 2005 1 J. Olssen TBAP database
Madete 12 1 2005 3 J. Olssen TBAP database
Wami River 13 1 2005 3 J. Olssen TBAP database
Wami River delta 13 1 2005 45 J. Olssen TBAP database
Maziwe Island 16 1 2005 1 J. Olssen TBAP database
Mwaraongo salt 18 1 2005 2 J. Olssen TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 5 11 2005 100 D. Peterson TBAP database
Mafia Island SW 14 1 2005 1 A.E. Christensen TBAP database
Yambe Island 21 1 2005 1 A.E. Christensen TBAP database
Ruvu Rver delta 8 1 2005 91 A. Sander TBAP database
Wami River delta 9 1 2005 8 A. Sander TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 12 1 2005 28 T. Johansen TBAP database
Bagamoyo south coast 18 1 2005 2 J. John TBAP database
Nsakala Bay 16 1 2005 1 T. Johansen TBAP database
Somanga Bay 18 1 2005 2 T .Johansen TBAP database
Somanga north 19 1 2005 2 T. Johansen TBAP database
Ruvuma estury 16 1 2005 8 A. Garpebring TBAP database
Jangwani DSM 4 1 2006 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 28 1 2006   D. Peterson TBAP database
Jangwani DSM   2 2006   J. Dixon TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   2 2006   D. Peterson TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 26 10 2006   D. Peterson TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   1 2007   D. Peterson TBAP database
Ruvu estury   5 2007   F. Reid TBAP database
Pemba north 30 11 2007 2 N. Borrow TBAP database
Dambwe island 30 11 2007   H. Zvulun TBAP database
Pemba north 22 3 2008   H. Zvulun TBAP database
Bagamoyo   3 2008   M. Eager TBAP database
Pembe Abwe   1 2009   D. Peterson TBAP database
Pangani beach   3 2009 1 Thomas TBAP database
Emayani beach 20 3 2010 1 P. Oliver TBAP database
Mkwaja   3 2010   J. Whittle TBAP database
Emayani beach 29 1 2011 1 T. Nyegaard TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 30 1 2011   D. Peterson TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 7 8 2011 7 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 4 9 2011 1 J. Simms TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 18 9 2011 4 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Mtwara 8 11 2011   J. Simms TBAP database
Maziwe island   1 2012   D. Peterson TBAP database
Bagamoyo Livingstone 11 3 2012   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 11 3 2012 70 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo Livingstone 27 5 2012 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 27 5 2012 11 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Fish Eagle Point 14 10 2012   F. Reid TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 16 12 2012 62 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 27 1 2013 113 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 10 3 2013 6 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 2 6 2013 2 E.M. Baker TBAP database
Livingstone Hotel 7 7 2013   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 4 8 2013 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 6 10 2013 4 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Saadani Tent View 2 11 2013 8 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Saadani salt works 3 11 2013 30 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 15 12 2013 25 J. Jarvis TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 25 12 2013   D. Peterson TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 26 1 2014 3 E.M. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 2 2 2014 137 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 9 2 2014   R. Marais TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 2 3 2014 80 J. Jarvis TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 2 3 2014 65 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 7 3 2014 57 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 16 3 2014 60 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 16 3 2014   J. Jarvis TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 19 4 2014   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 20 4 2014 5 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 15 6 2014 5 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Saadani Tent View 30 7 2014 7 J. Jarvis TBAP database
Saadani NP 1 8 2014 3 J. Jarvis TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 25 8 2014   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 28 9 2014 9 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 12 10 2014 6 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 23 10 2014 5 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 24 10 2014 9 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 10 11 2014 18 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 8 12 2014 71 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 2 1 2015 49 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 17 1 2015 48 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 18 1 2015   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 27 1 2015   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 22 2 2015 54 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 27 2 2015 12 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 2 4 2015 2 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 6 4 2015 35 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 11 4 2015 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Mchinga Bay 10 5 2015   M. Simmonds TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 24 5 2015 15 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 5 7 2015 8 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 11 7 2015 2 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 6 9 2015 9 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Fish Eagle Point 31 10 2015 2 O. Hamerlynck TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 29 11 2015 65 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 10 1 2016   F. Vetter TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 17 1 2016 154 F. Vetter TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 18 1 2016 105 F. Vetter TBAP database
Ushongo   1 2016   J. Whittle TBAP database
Pembe Abwe 2 2 2016   D. Peterson TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 7 2 2016   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Livingstone Hotel 7 2 2016   N.E. Baker TBAP database
Zanzibar Marumbi 11 4 2016 1 M. Blok TBAP database
Bagamoyo salt 6 11 2016 20 N.E. Baker TBAP database
Lake Manzi 9 12 2016 2 R. Marais TBAP database
Dar es Salaam 12 12 2017   F. Vetter TBAP database
Ruvu rice 20 7 2018   R. Marais TBAP database
Nyumba ya Mungu 21 1 2018 1 N.E. Baker TBAP database

Table 1: Observations for Tanzania from the Tanzania Bird Atlas Project database.

Breeding season records for Madagascar include Nosy Mborono (SW) June-August, Aldabra April-August, Nosy Tsara (N) from March, Nosy Foty (NW) May or June. Madagascar population estimates are given as 1,000 – 2,000 and 960 – 1,900 and the highest non-breeding count is of 200 birds [7]. Table 2 gives the number of records in each month with month maximums.

Months Number of Observations Highest Count Next high Next high Next high 
1 53 154 113 105 100
2 17 137 54 12  
3 17 80 70 65 60
4 11 35      
5 6 15 11    
6 8 15 13    
7 5 8 7    
8 4 7 3    
9 9 9 9 4  
10 10 9 6 5  
11 12 65 30 18  
12 30 105 71 62 38

Table 2: Number of observations and highest counts for each month for Tanzania from the TBAP database.

The breeding season fits well when birds are scarce in Tanzania. Stafford and Hawkins [7] give age at first breeding at 3 years or more which could account for low numbers off the Tanzania coast during the Malagasy breeding season.

Table 3 gives extra records taken from ebird. While this data adds to the general impression of a widespread species only the targeted survey of the Rufiji Delta in January 2017 includes significant numbers.

Locality Day Month Year Count Observer
Ruvuma River 1 1 2015 1 B. A. Jummaa
Fish Eagle Point 4 1 2019 5 W. van Zwetselaar
Zanzibar Channel 5 1 2018 1 L. Hintz
Zanzibar Channel 6 1 2019 2 G. Schechter
Zanzibar Channel 9 1 2000   B. Korol
Rufiji Delta 26 1 2017 40 S. Nagy
Rufiji Delta 27 1 2017 76 S. Nagy
White Sands Hotel 28 1 2016 5 G. Artioli
Sigi River Amboni 1 2 2005 1 J. Smith
Mafia Island 16 2 2013 4 M. Erdosy
Bagamoyo salt 10 3 2013 5 M. Erdosy
Zanzibar town 19 3 2008   D. Hoops
Pangani beach 24 3 2016 2 P. Davidson
Fish Eagle Point 27 3 2016 7 A. Grau
Zanzibar Channel 30 3 2018 2 D. Hjertaas
Zanzibar Island Beach Resort 10 4 2013 1 D. Pontalti
Beachcomber Hotel DSM 8 5 2016   J. Goldberg
Mbudya Island DSM 14 5 2016 4 J. Goldberg
Kipepeo DSM 2 6 2007 3 J. Stahl
Selous GR 6 6 2014 1 A. Hopkins
Zanzibar Breezes Hotel 30 6 2019   L. Corneliussen
Pangani beach 28 7 2016 2 W. van Zwetselaar
Slipway DSM 28 7 2010 1 S. Clark
Pemba Mantra Reef Hotel 14 10 1998   P. Kaestner
Zanzibar NE 24 10 2017   S. Knights
Fish Eagle Point 2 11 2001 1 R. Ridout
Lake Burunge 8 11 2014 1 R. Ridout
Zanzibar town 24 11 2012   K. Burton
Simply Saadani 29 11 2017 14 S. Thompson
Barry’s Beach 23 12 2006 6 A. Grau
Saadani NP 24 12 2016 3 A. Grau
Ushongo 28 12 2006 1 K. Schwartz
Ushongo 29 12 2018 4 P. Davidson
Maziwe Island 30 12 2016 8 D. Gabriel

Table 3: ebird records for Tanzania.

Note the lack of even casual records for August and September. Table 4 gives ebird records for Kenya. This maximum count of 30 birds suggests no changes in this wintering population since the 1970s. These Kenyan records do not suggest the 600 or so birds wintering on the Tanzania coast originate from the Western Palaearctic. Table 5 gives ebird records for Mozambique.

Locality Day Month Year Count Observer
Nyali Beach 19 1 1993 1 Kate Flemming
Mida Creek 20 1 2005 8 Jan Smith
Sabaki Estuary 22 1 2019 30 Kristina Wolf
Sabaki Estuary 29 1 2005 20 Jan Smith
Kizingitimi 13 1 1980 17 Hector de Silva
Vasco da Gama 26 2 1988 2 Johan Nilsson
Sabaki Estuary 29 2 2009 25 Johan Nilsson
Tana Delta 4 2 2017 30 Doris Schaule
Diani Ukundu 26 3 2005 1 Stephen Carter
Sabaki Estuary 2 4 2017 30 James Weis
Tana Delta 9 4 2019 30 Mustafa Adamjee
Manda 2 7 2017 4 Tyler Davis
Mida Creek 13 8 1989 3 David Holyoak
Watamu 17 10 1992 2 Frank Hawkins
Sabaki Estuary 21 10 2010 10 Antero Topp
Bamburi 27 11 2016 2 Antero Topp
Sabaki Estuary 12 11 2017 5 Doris Schaule
Sabaki Estuary 22 11 2016 6 Elizabeth Johnson
Sabaki Estuary 18 11 2005 28 Frank Brown
Malindi 28 12 2017 5 James Dee
Vasco da Gama 6 12 2001 8 John Sterling
Sabaki Estuary 19 12 1986 30 Steve Rose

Table 4: ebird records for Kenya.

Locality Day Month Year Count Observer Comments
Quiterajo 23 2 2014 1 W. McCleland  
Maputo 14 4 2013 40 G. Allport Many records of less than 10 birds for Maputo area.
Maputo 6 5 2014 35 G. Allport  
Quirimbas 26 7 2014   L. Hoschke  
Pemba 31 10 2018 5 D. Coleman  

Table 5: ebird records for Mozambique.

These few records do not suggest that the 600 birds wintering in Tanzania originate from the South Africa breeding population. We do not know the origins of these birds. It was earlier assumed they are from the Western Palaearctic (rather than South Africa) but the nearest large breeding populations are in the Black Sea with a 1% threshold of only 40 birds and the Caspian Sea with a 1% threshold of 120 birds [8]. There has been a small increase in sightings in Somalia with only 4 records prior to 1978 and 47 between then and the late 1990s [9]. Birds are present in low numbers throughout the year in Ethiopia and Eritrea [10] and there is a small breeding population on the coast of Eritrea with 103 pairs present on 45 islands in the northern winter [11]. Nikolaus [12] mentions “up to 300 on autumn passage” for the Sudan and that Swedish and Russian ringed birds have been recovered at Jebel Aulia and Sennar dams.

However, the lack of records from the well watched Kenya coast (Table 4) where no large flocks are known suggest that those now spending their non-breeding season on the Tanzania coast are not from the Western Palaearctic. Note that the current maximum flock size for the Kenya coast is, at 30 birds, the same as it was in the 1970s.

Ebird (accessed 30 September 2018) hosts 13 records for Tanzania that are not (yet) in the Atlas database (Table 3). During a waterbird survey of the Rufiji Delta in January 2017 counts of 76 and 46 have been submitted to ebird but not yet published (SN). Only one other count is of more than 10 birds, 14 off Mkwaja on 24 November 2017 (ST).

Clearly the coast of Tanzania is now hosting close to 200 birds in the Rufiji Delta, 160 in the vicinity of Bagamoyo and at least 100 in the vicinity of Saadani NP and 100 close to Pangani (Pembe Abwe). Given that there are smaller numbers at many other sites a non-breeding population close to 700 birds is likely [2]. The Rufiji Delta (with Mafia Island) is already a designated Ramsar site. The data presented here suggests that the salt pans in the valley of the lower Ruvu River flood plain qualify as a shadow Ramsar site for this species and so may those in Saadani NP when more effort has been made to count them on a regular basis. It should be remembered that high counts are only likely at roost sites during periods of high tide which helps explain lower counts during the months of peak abundance.

Safford and Hawkins [7] consider it a resident breeder on Madagascar, the Aldabra archipelago and on Europa. Ebird data for Madagascar lists 41 localities with only 3 serious counts of 10, 16 and 25 birds.

Peak counts for the Tanzania coast (Table 2) are from November through March. This suggests that many Malagasy birds could now be spending their non-breeding season on the coast of Tanzania. If this is correct then any count of 15 birds can be considered as meeting the Ramsar 1% criteria with at least 2 sites holding more than 10% of the population. Figure 2 details geo-referenced observation and the 4 main roost sites. A question for ornithologists and conservationists in Madagascar is WHY have these birds changed their non-breeding sites? The African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) does not consider any African populations as migratory. This may now have to change and I would suggest a tighter population estimate is required for the Malagasy population. It may well be that more than 50% are now wintering on the coast of Tanzania.

Entomology-Ornithology-Herpetology-localities

Figure 2. Geo-referenced localities for Caspian Tern on the coast of Tanzania. The 4 known high tide concentrations are detailed. There are likely to be others that have not yet been located.

Acknowledgements

The following are warmly thanked for contributing to the Atlas. There are names missing here who contributed as team members during the 2005 Waterbird count, for these omissions I apologize. Your counts are included under the name of the team leader.

Steven Adinall, Zul Bhatia, Nick Borrow, Martin Butterfield, Steven Cavers, Andreas Christensen, John Dixon, Melissa Eager, N.R. Fuggles-Couchman, A. Garpebring, Thomas Gottschalk, Olivier Hamerlynck, Jude Jarvis, Thomas Johansen, Jasson John,Thomas Lehmburg, Pete Leonard, Riaan Marais, Hans Meltoft, Kelvin Moon, Athanas Mwakyelu, Oliver Nasiwa,Timme Nyegaard, Paul Oliver, Jan Olssen, Edward Pollard, Fiona Reid, Allan Sander, Itai Shani, Kath Shurcliff, Mary Simmonds, Jez Simms, Chris and Tilde Stuart, Walter Suter, Ole Thorup, Simon Totterman, Martii Vatulainen, Friedemann Vettel, John Whittle, Barry Whitmore, Hagai Zvulun.

Szaboicz Nagy and Simon Thompson are thanked for submitting their counts to e-bird.

References

  1. Bregnballe T, Halberg K, Hansen IN, Petersen IK, Thorup O. Ornithological winter surveys on the coast of Tanzania 1988-89. ICBP Study Report No. 43. Cambridge. 1990.
  2. Baker NE. Tanzania Waterbird Count: the first co-ordinated count of the major wetlands of Tanzania. Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania. Dar es Salaam. 1997.
  3. Britton PL, Brown LH. The status and breeding behaviour of East African Lari. Ostrich. 1974; 45(2): 63-82.
  4. Harvey WG. More unusual Larids in Tanzania. Bulletin of the East Afr Nat Hist Society. 1973; 50-51.
  5. Britton PL. Status and identification of East African Terns. Scopus. 1977; 1(2): 29-34.
  6. Fuggles-Couchman NR. The distribution of and other notes on some birds of Tanzania. Scopus. 1984; 8(1): 1-17.
  7. Safford R, Hawkins F. The Birds of Africa: Volume VIII: The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm. London. 2013.
  8. Mundkur T, Nagy S. Waterbird Population Estimates 5th edition. Wetlands International. 2012.
  9. Ash JS, Atkins JD. Birds of Ethiopia & Eritrea. Christopher Helm. London. 2009.
  10. Semere D, Hagos T, Seleba G, Gebrezgabhier Y, Haile Z, Chiozzi G, et al. The status of breeding seabirds and waterbirds on the Eritrean Red Sea islands. Bulletin of the African Bird Club. 2008; 15(2): 228-237.
  11. Nikolaus G. Distribution Atlas of Sudan’s birds with notes on habitat and status. Bonn Zool Monogr. 1987; 25: 1-322.

Author Info

Neil Edward Baker*
 
Tanzania Bird Atlas, Tanzania
 

Citation: Baker NE (2020) The CaspianTern Hydropogne caspia in Tanzania. En tomol Ornithol Herpetol. 9:222. DOI:10.35248/2161-0983.20.9.222.

Received: 18-Jan-2020 Accepted: 03-Feb-2020 Published: 10-Feb-2020 , DOI: 10.35248/2161-0983.20.9.222

Copyright: © 2020 Baker NE. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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