Journal of Women's Health Care
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Prevalence of Alcohol Abuse among Undergraduates in Nigeria: A Predictive Study of Parental Styles and Self-esteem

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Introduction

Alcohol abuse is one of the most persuasive social problems in the world. When the word “drug” is mentioned what automatically comes to people’s mind is most likely, hard drug like cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and the likes. Very few people regard alcohol as a very potent drug due to the fact that it is readily available and its use is socially acceptable by the society, but if alcohol is constantly abused, its effect can be more harmful than the known illegal substances. Alcohol abuse is a behavior that most societies view as being detrimental to physical, social, psychological and spiritual health due to its much deleterious effect.

Alcohol abuse has been described as a chronic and usually progressive illness that involves problem controlling drinking of alcohol, being pre-occupied with alcohol, continuing to drink alcohol more to get the same effect (physical dependence) or having withdrawal symptom when rapidly decrease or stop drinking. Alcohol abuse among various populations and in virtually every country of the world is assuming an increasing alarming dimension, a tendency which if left unchecked could spell disaster of unimaginable proportion [1]. At the individual level, alcohol abuse has been implicated in many forms of human morbidity and mortality and it is a leading cause of preventable death in many countries of the world [2]. Of the total number of deaths and diseases caused by alcohol, most happen to majority of the population that are moderate drinkers rather than the heavy drinking minority [3].

There is no single know cause of alcohol abuse. Similar to drug addiction, alcohol abuse is a serious problem that develops over a period of time. There are often a variety of factors that leads to a person’s problem with alcohol, these include; genetic factors, psychological factors and social factors. Genetic factor play a significant role in the cause of alcohol abuse, there is no doubt that when addiction runs in a family, there is increased chance of addictive tendencies in the upcoming generations. Another factor in the causes of alcohol abuse is social. Some people began drinking alcohol through socialization with peers, relations etc. and gradually develop abusive relationship with alcohol. What may have been just drinking with friends becomes drinking at every social function and feeling the overwhelming urge to drink alcohol if alcohol is not part of the event.

Alcohol abuse is a major cause of physical conditions such as liver disease, or pharyngeal cancer, esophageal cancer and pancreatitis. Chronic alcohol intake or alcohol dependence can lead to a wide range of neuropsychiatric or neurological impairment, cardiovascular disease and malignant neoplasm. The psychiatric disorder associated with alcohol abuse include depression, phobias, dysthymia, mania, hypomania, panic disorder, general anxiety disorder, personality disorder, schizophrenia, suicide, neurological deficit and brain damage [4]. Additional, alcohol abuse has been implicated in majority of cases of vehicular fatalities worldwide, with attendant effect of physical deformity, loss of property, loss of job, loss of self-esteem and even loss of lives. Alcohol abuse is a leading cause of evidence among individuals is a major cause of premature death around the globe [5]. In a study by Janacek, Rybacek & Ulrchova [6] on factors associated with high school students’ alcohol consumption across three countries. Based on survey they conducted in high schools in three countries- the Czech Republic, Italy, and Slovenia- this study investigates the factors influencing alcohol consumption among high school students. Our analysis is based on four linear regression models, with the dependent variable, Alcohol consumption- one model for each country and a joint model for all countries. The results show that there are large differences as far as drinking habits and patterns across countries are concerned.

In the late 2019, an epidemic of cases with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2) has spread from China to the rest of the World, resulting in a global pandemic (CoronaVirus Disease 19, COVID-19 pandemic). Starting from the first months of 2020, several restrictions have been imposed by governments to face the public health threat, impacting the usual patterns of drug abuse throughout the world [7]. The temporary boarder closure affected the usual illicit drug route of shipping from Country to Country, resulting in scarcity of classic street drugs [8]. Other rising trends of substance abuse include cognitive enhancers and new psychoactive substances [9].

Parental style is a complex activity that includes much specific behavior that works individually and together to influence child’s life form. Parental style captures two important elements of parenting; parental responsiveness and parental demandingness. Parental responsiveness (also referred to as parental warmth or supportiveness) and also refers to the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive and acquiescent to children’s special needs and demand. Parental demandingness (also referred to as behavioral control) and also refers to the claims parent make on children to become integrated into the family as a whole by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys. However, when parental responsiveness and parental demandingness is crossed, it yields three parental styles. These parental styles are; authoritative, authoritarian and permissive parenting style [10].

Authoritative parenting style exhibit fewer psychological and behavioral problems [11]. Authoritative parents offer a firm and assertive approach, while simultaneously encouraging their children to express their opinion and explore their interests. An authoritative parenting style is characterized by clear expectations, firm rules and demand without explanation. They provide an orderly environment, while maintaining clear guidelines. Authoritarian parents exert control with minimal impact from children in making decisions and developing expectations [10]. Authoritarian parents offer little nurturance and emotional support to their children. Permissive parenting (warm style, virtually free from any discipline) was previously linked to increased externalizing symptoms like impulsiveness [12]. Permissive parenting has been identified as a risk factor for increased alcohol use and abuse among youth and undergraduate. Permissive parenting is characterized by over indulgence and a lack of supervision. This lack of supervision is problematic because perceived parental monitoring predicts a lower likelihood of alcohol misuse or abuse. Permissive parent do not make clear rule and the inappropriate behavior of children is frequently addressed [10].

Baumrind [10] discovered behavioral characteristics limited to the various parenting style. The offspring of authoritative parents tend to have the most desirable profiles. These children were friendly with peers, cooperative with adults, independent, energetic and achievement oriented. They also displayed a high degree of selfcontrol.

On the other hand, the tendency to abuse alcohol sometimes runs in families, suggesting a genetic component in alcohol abuse transmission. Further research by Pickens, Svikis, McGue, Lykken, Heston & Clayton [13] found out that children of alcoholic parents when compared to the children of non-alcoholic parents are four times likely to become alcoholics when they grow up. A study of peer group influence on adolescent showed that, though it’s an important factor, it is not the dominant socialization agent [14]. For example, the study showed that peer-group standards are important in matters dealing with manners and choice of friends. In general teens adopt their parent’s values on issues that matters for instance; the family, religion, work and morals. There are young people who reject family values and standards in favour of those peer groups. This happened to young person’s coming from very strict and permissive homes. Adolescents in families where discipline and autonomy are balanced based on the magnitude of time adolescents stays at home, peer effect become particularly more powerful when parent-adolescent relationships are of poor quality [15].

Self-esteem is a very certain and specific topic in psychology which is referred to every other psychological concept or domain including personality (e.g. Shyness) behavioral (functioning), cognitive (orientation) and clinical domain (e.g. stress, depression). Self-esteem influence alcohol abuse. Self-esteem is a personal sense of ability that is fundamental to an individual’s identity, a motivation engine that powers one’s cognitive machinery [16]. Smith, Seger and Mackie [17] defined self-esteem by saying “the self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem is the positive or negative evaluation of the self, as in how we feel about it”. It is characterized by one’s subjective appraisal of self-worth [18]. It refers to a person’s overall evaluation [19]. Self-esteem is seen as how favorable individuals evaluate themselves [20] and it is the relationship between one’s real self and one’s ideal self [21]. High self-esteem individual have a firing desire to maintain or enhance their self-esteem [21], while individuals with low selfesteem are more likely to feel awkward, shy, conspicuous and unable to express themselves with confidence. This may lead them into alcohol abuse, and such individuals are always worried about making mistakes, being embarrassed or exposed to ridicule, and they have strong tendency to avoid people [18]. Self-esteem is the reflection of the understanding of one self and sense of personal value. Our perceptions towards ourselves are developed through the process of acting and then thinking about our actions as well as how others perceive those actions. Self-esteem refers to our feelings about ourselves or the value we have for ourselves. In fact, it can be said that self-esteem is a general judgment about ourselves. Most people’s thoughts and feelings about themselves are partly based on their daily experiences. The score someone obtained in a test, how his or her friends behave toward him or her, and life’s fluctuations of ups and downs can all have a temporary effect on that individual’s vision of him/herself. However, it should be noted that self-esteem is something more fundamental than “Fluctuations” related to situational charges. For people with basic and high self-esteem, natural fluctuations can lead to a special feeling toward the environment and themselves, but only to a limited extent.

On contrary, to people with poor self-esteem, these “fluctuations” can mean the whole world (and therefore that individual is highly influenced by them). Often, the feeling of people with low selfesteem towards themselves is determined by their current actions. Such people are constantly in need of external positive experiences in order to overcome negative thoughts and feelings they are constantly influenced by. In such situations, a good feeling can only have a temporary effect. However, a healthy person’s selfesteem is based on their abilities to know themselves accurately, as well as acceptance of and value for themselves with (no feelings of humiliation and contempt).

Alcohol Abuse

There are different ideas and sometimes strong disagreement about what causes alcohol abuse. The biggest and most common emotional controversy is between those who say the cause is an incurable, progressive; primary disease and those who say it is not a disease, but a behavior disorder that includes different kinds of problems. A number of theories have been suggested over the years. Each one seems to make sense in some ways. However, each theory has also been shown to be inadequate in explaining all situations. Khantzian [22] points out that even the process and duration of addiction/dependence are not clear. Researchers simply do not know exactly why some people develop alcohol abuse and dependence and others do not, even under similar circumstances. Human behavior and the reasons for behavior are complicated. Today, researchers and experts agree that, whether or not a disease is involved, alcohol abuse and dependency are based on bio- psychosocial determinants- problems resulting from a complex interaction of an individual’s biological, psychological, cognitive {beliefs, thought, learning} and environmental {social, cultural, economic factors). Etc.

There are more and more researches indicating that genetic and other biological factors are involved in the development of dependence. The World Health Organization [23] has recently published thorough summary of the latest research about the brains role in such addiction. There is evidence that some people, especially males who have dependent family members, may have some kind of genetic preposition to developing problems. This does not mean the person will definitely become addicted. In fact, most people from families with alcohol problems or dependence usually develop alcoholic problems. He or she may have inherited certain genetic characteristics that put him or her at higher risk of developing alcohol dependency if he/she drinks heavily. Scientists do not yet understand how or why this possible genetic factor affects some individuals. Studies of identical twins from such families show that even if one twin has alcohol problems; in half the cases, the other does not. The question remains, why does one twin developed a problem and the other does not even though their genetic inheritances are the same? There is evidence that certain kinds of brain chemistry are involved in additions and other compulsive behaviors in some people World Health Organization [23]. For example, brain chemicals such as dopamine and serotonin seem to be especially implicated in a variety of ways. Lower levels of dopamine are related with stress. Higher levels are involved in feeling of pleasure. Alcohol can temporarily increase dopamine, making a person feel good. He/she may then use alcohol again to get that same feeling. Frequent heavy drinking seems to interfere in normal brain function and brain chemistry.

Heavy alcohol consumption especially when combined with poor nutrition, also leads to abnormalities in the liver and pancreases, which are essential in processing vitamins, proteins and other nutrients (National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health, [24]. Nutritional deficiencies lead to physical problems and can cause depression and anxiety because of chemical imbalances. These may then lead to further drinking in a way human bodies will process alcohol [25]. For example, it is known that women are more likely to develop serious physical problems (Liver etc.) than men and will do that sooner than the men. Some women seem to be deficient in a certain enzyme that is involved in metabolizing alcohol. Some studies show that certain people who eventually develop dependence are more able to handle alcohol right from the beginning. They can drink much more than other people before they show signs of drunkenness. Perhaps because they can drink before feeling the effects, they in fact drink more.

Researchers, however, do not fully understand what kind of genetic and biological differences are involved, how the differences lead to an increased risk of alcohol dependence, or even if they definitely do it usually lead to dependence or abuse. It is not just simply to say without clear evidence that the gene that causes alcohol abuse or alcohol problems are inherited. Rather, it is likely that there may be a variety of genes, biological characteristics and complex indirect interactions which in combination with other circumstances, may lead to alcohol dependence or abuse in a specific individual. All researchers emphasize that biological factors alone do not fully explain addiction. Biology always combines with social, environmental and individual psychological factors to produce behavior. Not everyone with certain genetic or chemical characteristics develops dependence, even when personal and environmental factors are similar to individual suffering from alcohol addiction. Suffice to say there are some biological factors underlying addiction and abuse is not necessarily the same as saying addiction is a disease.

Parental Style

Home atmosphere is very important for the growth of personality of adolescents; parents play important roles in determining the development of physical, social and psychological growth in adolescents. Pattern of attitudes among parents determine the tendencies and attitudes among children [26]. It is assumed that the primary role of all parents is to influence, teach and control their children. However, uncongenial atmosphere is likely to injure the development of adolescents’ growth [27].

Parenting is a very important factor in the growth of adolescents. The quality of behavior that parents show towards children is important for their creative and social upbringing. Affectionate and loving parents inculcate an emotional feeling of goodness in their children. Adolescents under such conditions learn to be free, frank, honest and candid about their feelings. In the relationship with others, they are cordial and social; [26].

Evaluating the Parental Style

The key element of parental role is to socialize the child to conform to the necessary demands of others and maintaining a sense of personal integrity. Control was defined as strictness, use of corporal punishment, consistency punishment, use of explanations and so on [10]. In contrast, Baumrind argued that parents’ willingness to socialize their child is conceptually separate from parental restrictiveness. Baumrind felt that there were four dimensions of parent child interactions: parental control, maturity demands, clarity of communication and nurturance. “Parental control” is related to such issues as enforcing rules, “Maturity demand” is it parental expectations that children will perform up to their potential? “Clarity of communication” reflects the parents’ willingness to communicate with their children, solicit their opinions and use reasoning to obtain the desired behavior. “Nurturance” is related to parenting expression of warmth and approval, and protection of children’s physical and emotional wellbeing. Using these four dimensions, Baumrind (1991) identified four parental styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissiveindulgent and neglect uninvolved parenting style.

Authoritative Parental Style

The authoritative parental style is considered the “ideal” parenting style and seems to produce children with high levels of selfreliance and self-esteem, who are socially responsible, independent and achievement oriented [28]. Authoritative parents set clear expectations and have high standards. They monitor their children’s behavior, use discipline based on reasoning and encourage their children to make decisions and learn from their mistakes. They are also warm and nurturing, treating their children with kindness, respect and affection.

Authoritarian Parental Style

Although the word sounds similar, authoritarian parenting is different in many ways from authoritative parenting. Authoritarian parents tend to set rigid rules, demand obedience and also use strategies such as withdrawal of love and approval to force a child to conform. These parents are more likely to use physical punishment or verbal insults to elicit desired behavior. They lack the warmth of the authoritative parents and may seem aloof to their children with authoritative parents may not allow, but they are also likely to be moody and anxious; they tend to be followers rather than leaders [28].

Permissive-Indulgent Parental Styles

The permissive-indulgent parenting is over flowing in parenting warmth. These parents maybe openly affectionate and loving but set few or no limits, even when the child’s safety maybe at risk. Permissive-indulgent parents make few demands for maturity or performance from their children and there are often no consequences for misbehavior. Children of permissive parents often have problems with controlling their impulses. They may display immaturity and be reluctant to accept responsibility [29]. Encyclopedia of infant and Early Childhood Development [30] shows that permissive parenting style was only significantly associated an increased risk of externalizing problems, and indifferent parenting had a consistently negative impact on some individuals, more especially on alcohol abuse.

Neglectful-Uninvolved Parental Style

It is characterized by the same lack of limits or demands seen in the permissive-indulgent style. However, uninvolved parents display little or no parental warmth. At its extreme, the uninvolved style can be neglectful or involve an outright rejection of the child. Children with uninvolved parents are likely to have low levels of functioning in many areas. They tend to do poorly in school, are more likely to exhibit delinquent behavior, and be depressed [30].

Theories on Parental Style

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory was propounded by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura. The theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Bandura believes that the principles of conditioning and reinforcement elaborated by Skinner and others were important mechanisms of development, but he expanded on how children and adults acquired new responses. Social learning theory posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction even in the absence of motor reproduction or reinforcement [31].

Bandura is responsible for an extensive line of laboratory research demonstrating that observational learning (often referred to as modeling), is the basis of the development of a wide variety of behaviors, such as aggression, helping, sharing, and even sex-typed responses. Bandura recognized that from an early age, children acquire many skills in the absence of rewards and punishments simply by watching and listening to others around them. However, children do not imitate everyone around them- they are more selective, being drawn towards models who are warm and powerful and who possess desirable objects and characteristics. Most times parents fit into these characteristics and are seen as models by their children. They regard observational learning as one of the most powerful mechanism of socialization and parenting.

Bandura believes individuals can learn by observing what others do through observational learning (Also called modeling and imitation). Individuals cognitively represent the behavior of others and then possibly adopt this behavior themselves. For example, a young boy observes his father’s aggressive outburst and hostile interchanges with people, when observed with pears, the young boy’s interaction is highly aggressive, showing the same characteristics as his father’s behavior or a young female excusive adopts the dominant and sarcastic style of her boss. When observed interacting with one of her subordinates, the young women says” “I need that work immediately if not sooner, you are so behind, you think you are ahead”. Social learning theorists believe adolescent acquire a wide range of such behaviors, thoughts and feelings through observing their parents’ behavior, observation forms an important part of people’s development [32]. Thus individual learn behavior through their parents and in a situation where the parents are alcoholic, the individual tend to be alcoholic. Individuals abuse alcohol as a result of observational learning from their parents.

Evaluating Self-Esteem

In psychology, the term self-esteem is used to describe a person’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value. Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait, which means that it tends to be stable and enduring. Self-esteem can a variety of beliefs about the self, such as the appraisal of one’s own appearance, beliefs, emotions and behaviors. Self-esteem refers most generally to an individual’s overall positive evaluation of the self. It is composed of two distinct dimensions-competences and worth. Competence dimension or the efficacy based self-esteem refers to the degree to which people see themselves as capable and efficacious. The worth dimension or worth-based self-esteem refers to the degree to which individuals feel they are persons of value.

As a social construct and the possible significance of resulting contingent domains, self-esteem provides the basis for the discussion of values. Research on self-esteem has generally proceeded on the presumption of one of three conceptualizations, and each conceptualization has been treated almost independently of the other. First, self-esteem has been investigated as an outcome. Scholars taking that approach have focused on processes that produce or inhibit self-esteem. Second, self-esteem has been investigated as a self-motive, noting the tendency for people to believe in ways that maintain or increase positive evaluations of the self. Finally, self-esteem has been investigated as a buffer for the self, protecting harmful experiences. In a paper entitled low self-control, substance-using peers and intimate partners, pro-drug use among convicted offenders in South Korea, Choi & Kruis [33] posited that Hirschi [34] has argued that the relationship between social learning variables and crime is a product of “self-selection” driven by low self-control (LSC). Akers’ [35] has suggested that social learning mechanism, such as affiliation with deviant individuals, can mediate the effects of LSC on crime. Interestingly there has been little comparative work done to explore this mediation hypothesis in the realm of substance use for offender population outside of the United States. This study helps fill these gaps in the literature by exploring the potential mediation effects of social learning variables on the relationship between LSC and inhalant use among a sample of 739 male offenders in South Korea. Our results provide strong support for the mediation hypothesis that LSC indirectly influences self-reported inhalant use through social learning mechanisms.

There are a variety of categories of self-esteem which include:

i. Global self-esteem which refers to the overall aggregated opinion of oneself at any time on a scale between negative and positive.

ii. Domain specific relates to one’s self-esteem in regard of a particular area, such as sport.

iii. Trait self-esteem describes an individual’s accumulated lifelong perception of social inclusion ad exclusion.

iv. State self-esteem refers as perception of changes in one’s level of social inclusion, given a particular setting.

v. Stable which is compared to unstable and narcissistic selfesteem, with the latter two eliciting stronger emotional reactions to ego threats.

vi. True or authentic self-esteem indicates high self-esteem that is stable.

Components of Self-Esteem

According to one definition (Braden, 1969), there are three key components of self-esteem:

i. Self-esteem is an essential human need that is vital for survival and normal healthy development

ii. Self-esteem arises automatically from within based upon a person’s beliefs and consciousness

iii. Self-esteem occurs in conjunction with a person’s thoughts, behaviors, feelings and actions.

Theories on Self-Esteem

Terror Management Theory (TMT)

Terror Management Theory (TMT) was developed in 1986 by social psychologist Jeff Greenberg, Tom Pyszczynski and Sheldon Solomon. This theory proposes a basic psychological conflict that results from having a desire to live but realizing that death is inevitable. This conflict produces terror and is believed to be unique to human beings. Moreover, the solution to the conflict is also generally unique to human; “culture”. According to TMT, cultures are symbolic systems that act to provide life meaning and value. Cultural values therefore serve to manage the terror of death by providing life with meaning. Self-esteem lies at the heart of TMT and is a fundamental part of its main experimental paradigms. TMT does not just attempt to explain what self-esteem is, but rather tries to account for why we need self-esteem and what psychological functions it may serve. In TMT, self-esteem is a sense of personal value, which is obtained by believing in two things. First, the validity of one’s cultural world view. Second, that one is living up to standards that are part of the worldview.

TMT paints a somewhat morbid picture; high self-esteem promotes positive effect and personal growth, psychological well-being and coping as a buffer against anxiety in the knowledge of our eventual certain death and reduces defensive anxiety-related behavior. This anxiety-related behavior can lead an individual into alcohol abuse if the individual level of self-esteem is not high. Thus, self-esteem is a developing base on the cultural value of the individual. The cultural worldview of an individual contributes to its self-esteem and alcohol abuse. In a situation where the cultural value accepts drinking of alcohol, the individual tend to consume alcohol and even abuse it by drinking excess. Bringing this to the context of Nigeria undergraduates that are from the Northern part of Nigeria where the cultural value do not go in line with alcohol consumption, and hence they have low tendency in alcohol consumption. While those in the southern part of Nigeria, whose cultural value go in line with alcohol consumption have the tendency to have high rate of alcohol consumption. Thus, individuals who are highly committed to a worldview of alcohol consumption will drive selfesteem from that commitment. Also, individuals who do not have high commitment to the worldview of alcohol consumption do not drive self-esteem from the commitment.

Ikechukwu, Siti, Mansor, [37] assessed the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between stress and substance abuse among adolescents. The participants of the study were 352 adolescents, 54.5% males and 45.5% females aged 13 to 18 years, from selected secondary schools in Somolu, Lagos, Nigeria. Substance abuse measured with the drug abuse screening test while stress was measured with perceived stress scale and self-esteem was measured with Rosenberg self-esteem scale. The study ascertained a negative and large correlation (r = - 536, p <.01) between stress and self-esteem, similar results (r = -.53, p <.01) was found between selfesteem and substance abuse and a Positive and medium correlation (r = 360, p<.01) was found between stress and substance abuse.

Villegas-Pantoja, Alonso-Castillo, Alonso-Castillo, Martinez- Maldonado [38], investigated on self-esteem, perceived self-efficacy, consumption of tobacco and alcohol in secondary student from urban and rural areas of Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. The study aimed to know the differences, if any, in the consumption of tobacco and alcohol among adolescents from urban and rural areas, and if self-esteem and self-efficacy are related to the consumption in these two groups of adolescents from secondary schools in urban and rural areas of Nuevo Leon, Mexico from January to June, 2006. The study used a sample of 359 students. The result showed a substantial differential difference in the consumption of tobacco among secondary student from urban and rural areas (U=7513.50. p =.03). The average consumption in urban area was higher (average C= .35) that rural area (average C= .14). A negative and significant relation was found between the quantity of drinks consumed on a typical day and self-esteem (rs=-.23, p<.001) as well as for the quality of cigarettes consumed on a typical day (rs = -.20, p< .001).

Kanus, Mbututia, & Kiptala [39], investigated the influence of parental alcohol abuse on self-esteem of secondary school students in Kosirai Division, Nandi North district, Kenya. The result of the study showed that students who reported parental alcohol abuse had significantly lower self-esteem than those who did not. The study therefore concluded that parental alcohol abuse negatively influenced the self-esteem of students. When comparisons were made on the basis of gender, the girls were found to be more negatively influenced more than the boys.

Faloon [40] conducted a study on the relationship between selfesteem, binge drinking and sexual risk behavior among young women. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the relationship between self-esteem, alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors. The result showed that education was not related to binge drinking or self-esteem. Higher level of self-esteem was related to higher level of binge drinking. Sexual risk behavior was related to selfesteem.

The damaging effect of alcohol abuse are not only limited to the person and those living close to him but the societies at large. The abuse of alcohol by University undergraduate and other members of the society in all ramifications appears to be a social problem. Studies have shown that alcohol plays a major role in decreased productivity, increased poverty level, increase unintentional injuries, aggression, violence against others, child and spouse, among others causes serious health conditions. Alcohol abuse wrecks individuals, shatters families and weakens entire society with burden of economic loss, health conditions, increased violence and crimes and unintentional vehicular accidents. Alcohol undermines the ability of undergraduate students to learn and it also contradicts our value of spiritual, psychological, emotional and physical wellbeing. People drink because it is thought that alcohol help reduce stress and gives some sense of fulfillment but it is generally elusive, greater quantities are consumed and ultimately the individual suffers both physical and psychological deterioration. It is also an inevitable fact that those who abuse alcohol experience problem of interaction and they may encounter lots of social problems ranging from lateness to lectures, deviant behavior and involvement in crime and the likes.

Various scholarly researches have been carried out as to determine the root causes of alcohol abuse. These researches however have their location and sample drawn from different countries abroad. The need to verify the authoritativeness and reliability of these researches in the Nigerian case has remained a feat yet to be accomplished by local researchers. Attempts by scholars are yet to fully establish empirically if parental style and self-esteem are significant predictors of alcohol abuse especially among Nigerian undergraduates. It is upon this premise of deficiency in knowledge and in empirical studies as regard the effect of parental style and self-esteem on alcohol abuse that this study is being carried out. The researchers, hence, wants to know if parental style and self-esteem has a significant effect and thus could be the cursory predictors of this social menace called alcohol abuse.

Operational Definition of Key Study Variables

Alcohol Abuse: The Use of alcohol beverages to excess, either on individual occasions or as a regular practice. Alcohol abuse refers having unhealthy or dangerous drinking habits, such as drinking every day or drinking too much at time. Alcohol abuse can be refer to as drinking behaviors that have recurring negative impacts on an individual’s health, relationships and work.

Parental Style: This is the manner of which parents raise their children. Parental style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing. Parental style is meant to describe normal variations in parenting.

Self-esteem: A person’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value. Self-esteem also refers to how people see or feel about themselves. Self-esteem refers to self-perceived and self-evaluative component of self-concept which is the sum total of the self-perceived and other perceived views of “self” held by a person.

Research Questions

• Will self-esteem significantly predict alcohol abuse among undergraduate students?

• Will parental style significantly predict alcohol abuse among undergraduate students?

Research Hypothesis

• H1 Parental-style will significantly predict alcohol abuse among undergraduates.

• H2 Self-esteem will significantly predict alcohol abuse among undergraduates.

Method

Participants

A total of two hundred and twelve (212) participants from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka were randomly selected and participated in the study. They were randomly selected from four Faculties (Social Sciences 54 (25.5%), Management Sciences 59 (27.8%), Education 48 (22.6%), and Art 51 (24.1%)). The sample consisted of 121 (56%) males and 84 (43%) females. Participants’ age ranges were as follows: 46 (21.70%) were aged between 18 and 21 years, 135 (63.68%) were aged between 22 and 25 years while 31 (14.62%) were aged between 26 and above. The researchers employed simple random sampling technique to select the Faculties. Convenience sampling technique was used in selection of the participants from the four pre-identified Faculties. Convenience sampling technique is a type of non-probability sampling which involved the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population is selected because it is readily available and convenient such as through meeting the individuals’ concerned.

Instrument

Data were collected by employing the use of structured and validated questionnaire. Background variables for the questionnaire were presented in the Section A. the Background information contains such information as sex, name, Faculty and age.

In Section B, the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by Buri (1991) was adopted to measure the three parenting styles. It contains 30-items and 10-items for each parenting style. The PAQ responses for each item are made on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The item number for Authoritarian are 2,3,7,9,12,16,18,25,26,29; Permissive are 1,6,10,13,14,17,19,21,24,28 and Authoritative are 4,5,8,11,15,20,22,23,27,30. The scoring is by summing up the individual responses.

In Section C, the Index of Self-Esteem (ISE) developed by Hudson (1982) was adopted to measure the level of self-esteem/ self-concept. The 25-items inventory was designed to measure the self-perceived and self-evaluative component which is the total of the perceived and others' perceived views of the self-held by the person. The ISE utilized a 5-Likert scale questionnaire to assess the respondents’ perception of the self. The expected response ranges from Rarely or none of the time (1), A little of the time (2), Some of the time (3), A good part of the time (4), and Most or all of the time (5). Respondents’ scores were determined whether they have a perceived Low or High self-esteem. Some items like 1,2,8,9,10,11,12,13,16,17,19,20 and 24 are scheduled for direct scoring. However, items 3,4,5,6,7,14,15,18,21,22,23, and 25 are false-keyed that is, they are meant for reverse scoring.

In Section D, Alcohol Dependence Scale (ADS) developed by Skinner (1984) was used to measure alcohol dependence. The instrument utilized dichotomous items, three-choice items, and four-choice items. Item number for Dichotomous is 2, 9, 15, 18, 24, 25; Three-choice is 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,11,12,13,14,17,19,20,21,23 and Four-choice is 10, 16, and 22. The scoring for dichotomous are 0, 1; three choices are 0, 1, 2 and four-choice are 0,1,2,3.

Reliability and Validity of Research Instrument

Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) – John R. Buri (1991)

Buri [41] obtained test-retest reliability Cronbach coefficient alpha values mother’s permissiveness 0.81, mother’s authoritarianism 0.86, mother’s authoritativeness 0.78, father’s permissiveness 0.77, father’s authoritarianism 0.86, and father’s authoritativeness 0.92. A pilot study was conducted using 50 respondents and a Cronbach alpha reliability of 0.71 was obtained.

Index of Self-Esteem (ISE) – By Hudson (1982)

Hudson [42] obtained the coefficient alpha of 0.93 and a two-hour test-retest coefficient of 0.92. Onighaiye [44] obtained the following coefficient of validity by correlating ISE with the stated tests: concurrent validity with SSL-.90 by Derogatis, Lipman & Covi (1973). A pilot study was conducted by the researchers using 50 respondents and a Cronbach alpha reliability of 0.81 was obtained

Alcohol Dependence Scale (ADS) – By Skinner (1984)

Skinner [43] obtained a coefficient alpha of 0.91 and a one-week test-retest reliability of 0.92. Ross and Gavin [45] obtained the following validity by correlating Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (MAST) and Alcohol Dependence Scale (ADS) and obtained a 0.79 alpha coefficient. A pilot study was conducted using 50 respondents and a Cronbach alpha reliability of 0.74 was obtained.

Procedure

A pilot study was conducted using 50 respondents to validate the instrument. After the pilot study and validation of the instrument, a Simple random sampling technique was used to select the Faculties in Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State Nigeria for the study. The four Faculties selected through simple random sampling were Management Sciences, Art, Social Sciences, and Education. The researchers employed a convenience sampling technique in the selection of students that participated in the study. The researchers used this technique because at the time of the research, students have finished their examinations and most of them have gone on their vacation. The three instruments used in this research as mentioned above were prepared in a single questionnaire format with an introductory letter. The researchers administered the questionnaires to students from the four identified Faculties. The researchers met the students and creates a rapport with them before giving them the questionnaires to fill out. The researchers explain to them what the questionnaire is all about and told them to read the instructions in each of the sections. The researchers waited for the students to fill out the questionnaires. The researchers collected the copies of the distributed questionnaire from the students after they had finished filling the questionnaires. Of the 250 questionnaires administered, 212 were returned with usable data, representing an 84.8% return rate.

Design/Statistics

This research is a cross-sectional study and the design for this study is a predictive design. Based on the design, linear regression analyses were used as the appropriate statistics for the study.

Results

However, analysis was conducted using linear regression to identify the influence of the predictor variables on the criterion variable.

In Table 1 above, Figure 1 which states that parental style will significantly predict alcohol abuse was accepted at T=-.551, P≤ .002. From the result in Table 1, given that both independent variables have P ≤.05, the alternate hypotheses were accepted. The parental style indicated P≤.002 which is below the acceptable level of significance at P≤.05, and thus by this we state that parental style will significantly predict alcohol abuse among undergraduate students and we accept the alternate hypotheses. The Beta Weight further revealed that the authoritative parental style contributed 88% to the prevalence of drug abuse among undergraduates in Nigeria, the Authoritarian parental style contributed 85% to the prevalence of drug abuse among undergraduates, Permissive indulgent parental style contributed 83% to the prevalence of drug abuse among undergraduates in Nigeria. Finally, neglectful parental style contributed 84% to the prevalence of drug abuse among undergraduates in Nigeria.

Table 1. Summary table of coefficients of regression.

Figure 1:Parental Styles Prevalence of Alcohol Abuse.

Figure 2 which states that self-esteem will significantly predict alcohol abuse was accepted at T=.354, P≤.001. Self-esteem on the other hand indicated P≤.001 which is below the acceptable level of significance at P≤.05, thus by this, we state that self-esteem significantly predicts alcohol abuse among undergraduate students, and we accept the alternate hypotheses.

Figure 2:Self Esteem Prevalence of Alcohol Abuse.

In summary, the level of significance of both parental style and alcohol abuse as shown in Table 1 P≤.05 indicates that both parental style and self-esteem have a significant relationship with alcohol abuse and thus are both predictors of alcohol abuse among undergraduate students. The Beta-Weight further revealed that high self-esteem contributed 140% to the prevalence of drug abuse among undergraduates in Nigeria, while low self-esteem contributed 128% to the prevalence of drug abuse among undergraduates in Nigeria.

Table 2 above shows that the F (2,401.5) = 1.945(p≤0.001). This shows the overall significance of the model, as such the predictor variables are assumed to predict the criterion variable.

Table 2. Summary table of regression analysis of alcohol abuse.

Discussion

This research sought to ascertain if Parental styles and Self-esteem are predictors of alcohol abuse among Nigerian undergraduates using Nnamdi Azikiwe University students as participants. Hypothesis 1 stated that parents will significantly predict alcohol abuse was accepted. This shows that parental style is a significant predictor of alcohol abuse. This result is in consonance with the bio- psychosocial theory which posits that substance misuse (alcohol abuse) is the net result of a complex interaction between a combination of biological, psychological, social and spiritual determinants. According to the theory, biological factor refers to the gene which the offspring inherited. A parent who is an alcoholic, and base on this theory the gene of being alcoholic can be transfer to the offspring. This could be one factor that leads individuals into alcohol abuse. This study conformed to the social learning theory which posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in the social context and can occur purely through observation. Thus, children learn to drink alcohol base on observation of their parent attitude towards alcohol consumption. In most cases, parents that are alcoholic, their children tend to emulate or learn their attitude through observing their parent which propelled them into indulging in alcohol abuse. This study also aligns with attachment theory which entails the relationship and bonds between people, particularly long term relationship between a parent and a child. The occupation of the parent have influence on how they rear their children especially parents whose occupation do not give them opportunity to have parent-child bond. This will give the child freedom to do anything, especially abusing alcohol since there is no parent-child bond. This result is in consonance with Changalwa, Ndurumo, Barasa and Poipoi [46] which showed that parenting styles have significant relationship on alcohol abuse. Abikoye, Sholarin and Adekoya [47] also observed that parental styles predict substance abuse. In figure 1; below showing the bar-chat of parental style as it relates to preference of alcohol abuse among undergraduates: Undergraduates with authoritative parental style with the score of 88% abuse alcohol more, followed by undergraduate with authoritarian parental style with the score of 85%, and undergraduates with neglectful parental style with the score of 84% and finally undergraduates with permissive indulgent parental style with the score of 83%.

Hypothesis 2 which stated that self-esteem will significantly predict alcohol abuse was accepted. This result shows that self-esteem is a significant predictor of alcohol abuse. This result validates the psychological factor concept of the bio-psychosocial theory. Psychological factor affecting alcohol abuse tendency in this case refer to self-esteem. Since self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait. Deficit in this personality trait can cause alcohol abuse.

This result is also in consonance with terror management theory, according to this theory self-esteem is developed base on the cultural worldview of an individual which contributes to its selfesteem and alcohol abuse. In a situation where the cultural value accepts alcohol intake, the individual tends to drink alcohol so as to obtain self-esteem from that locality and sense of belonging. Thus, individual who are highly committed to their cultural worldview of alcohol consumption tend to abuse alcohol. In alignment with the research result, the self-verification theory which posits that people wants to be known and understood by others according to their firmly held beliefs and feeling about themselves. Individual tend to abuse alcohol base on the level of the way they view themselves. Thus, individual may view themselves in positive or negative ways which build their self-esteem. Those that have negative view about themselves abuse alcohol. This result is in consonance with the social identity theory, according to this theory individual selfesteem is build base on their membership to in-group. Individuals join different group and if that group view alcohol consumption as mere drink or use it to perform their group ritual, members of that group will always consume alcohol. This result is also in consonance with socio-meter theory which posits that because most people has some social ties most of the time, the danger of losing attachments is more urgent than appeal of forming new ones and so the socio-meter should be especially attuned to cues that connote devaluation, rejection, exclusion, inclusion which determine an individual’s self-esteem. Thus, individual tends to abuse alcohol base on the level of these factors which determine self-esteem. This result is in consonance with Villegas-Pantoja, Alonso-Castillo, Alonso-Castillo, Martinez-Madonado [38], they reported that negative and significant relationship was found between the quantity of alcohol consumed and self-esteem. Ikechukwu, Siti, Mansor et al [37] also observed a negative and large correlation between self-esteem and substance abuse. In figure 2; below showing the bar-chat of self-esteem as it relates to alcohol abuse among undergraduates: Undergraduates with high self-esteem with percentage score of 140% abuse alcohol more than the undergraduates of low self-esteem with percentage score of 128%.

Limitation of the Study

Given that Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, is a large Federal institution with thousands of students, the sample size of 212 as used in this study are not large enough for generalization. Some of the respondents were reluctant to participate in the survey. Some that participated could not properly fill their questionnaires while some were lost in the process. Given that this research looked into only one university among hundreds of university in Nigeria, it is suggested that further research on this topic should include more Universities in Nigeria. Attempts to include other tertiary institutions like polytechnics and colleges of education will provide us with more insight on the topic. This study highlighted the important roles of parental styles in understanding students’ alcohol abuse problems. It also implies that students should learn to hold on to high esteem and refrain from being dominated by their peers and cliques who will lead them into doing that which they do not desire to do.

Conclusion

The researcher, in consonance with the research outcomes concludes that both parental styles and self-esteem are both predictors of alcohol abuse. From the result and findings, the researcher has provided explanation for the continuous rise in alcoholic intakes among undergraduate students in Nigeria which include genetic, lack of parental bond with children, imitating their parents that consume alcohol, negative view about themselves and as result of being a member to in-group that use alcohol to perform their group rituals.

Funding Institution

Not Applicable

Acknowledgement

Our special thanks goes to the student of the four Faculties in Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State Nigeria which was the research setting, namely; Management Sciences, Arts, Social Sciences and Education for their cooperation throughout the duration of this study. They filled the questionnaire and there provided the relevant data for this study.

We also wish to all the authors of this manuscript for their resilience and perseverance in gathering the data of this study, and contributing their various quotas in writing up this beautiful research piece. We give God the glory for the gift of intelligence, courage and strength in writing up and producing a research paper of this magnitude.

Finally, we appreciate all the support staff who contributed in one way or the other in making this work a reality.

Public Interest Statement

The prevalence of alcohol abuse among Nigerian Undergraduates has become a public issue that needed to be addressed in our various Universities and probably a lasting solution for its future occurrences. Alcohol is a common substance in Nigerian society and if grossly abused, could lead to life threatening psychological and health conditions. In this study, predictor variables such as parental styles and self-esteem were regressed on criterion variable the prevalence of alcohol abuse. The results showed that parental styles and self-esteem actually predicted prevalence of alcohol abuse among undergraduates. The result further showed that authoritative parental style contributed more to the prevalence of alcohol abuse among undergraduates followed by authoritarian parental style, then neglectful-uninvolved parental style and finally permissive- indulgent parental style. The result also revealed that undergraduates with low self-esteem involve themselves in alcohol abuse more than undergraduates with high self-esteem. It is the opinion of the researchers that the Federal and State Governments in Nigeria should regulate or ban alcohol in-take in the campuses of the Nigerian Universities. Therefore, the current found out that alcohol in-take in Nigerian Universities usually lead to alcohol abuse.

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