Journal of Cell Signaling
Open Access

Connection of Cell Signaling Pathways for Cellular Responses: A Short Communication

Roberto Ubaldo^{* *}Correspondence: Roberto Ubaldo, Department of Life and Reproduction Sciences, University of Verona Medical School, Verona, Italy, Email:

Author info »

Description

A cellular response is produced as a result of a series of molecular processes, most frequently protein phosphorylation catalysed by protein kinases, known as signal transduction, which is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transferred through a cell. Although in some instances the term sensor is used, generally speaking, proteins that detect stimuli are referred to as receptors. A signalling route, which is a series of biochemical events known as a biochemical cascade, is initiated by the changes brought about by ligand binding (or signal detecting) at a receptor [1].

Signalling pathways connect with one another to build networks that enable the coordination of cellular responses, frequently through combinatorial signalling events. These reactions include adjustments to gene transcription or translation, posttranslational changes to protein structure, and adjustments to proteins' molecular localisation. These molecular events are the basic mechanisms regulating cell proliferation, metabolism, and many other functions. In multicellular organisms, signal transduction pathways regulate cell communication in a variety of ways [2].

Each part (or node) of a signalling pathway is categorised based on the function it performs in relation to the initial stimulus. Primary effectors are activated by signal transducers called receptors, which in turn are first messengers called ligands. These effectors, which are primarily proteins, are frequently connected to second messengers, which in turn can activate further effectors. Signal gain is the idea that a signal can be amplified so that one signalling molecule can cause a reaction involving hundreds to millions of molecules depending on how effective the nodes are.

Similar to other signal transduction, biological signal transduction is characterized by delay, noise, signal feedback and feed forward, and interference, which can be minimal or severe. Analysis of signalling pathways and networks has become crucial to understanding biological processes and illness, including the signaling rewiring mechanisms driving acquired drug resistance.

This is thanks to the development of computational biology [3]. A wide range of cells manufacture integrins, which are involved in signal transduction from extracellular matrix elements including fibronectin and collagen as well as cell adhesion to other cells and the extracellular matrix. The structure of the protein is altered by ligand binding to the extracellular domain of integrins, which clusters the protein at the cell membrane to start signal transmission. Integrin-mediated signal transduction is therefore accomplished through a number of intracellular protein kinases and adaptor molecules, with integrin-linked kinase serving as the primary coordinator. Integrins lack kinase function. Cooperative integrin-RTK signalling regulates the timing of cellular survival, death, proliferation, and differentiation, as seen in the adjacent image [4].

Integrin-signaling in circulating blood cells and non-circulating cells, including epithelial cells, differs significantly because integrins in circulating cells are typically dormant. For instance, to prevent epithelial cell attachment, cell membrane integrins on circulating leukocytes are kept dormant; they only become active in response to stimuli like those received at the location of an inflammatory response. Similar to this, integrins on circulating platelets' cell membranes are often kept inactive to prevent thrombosis. Appropriate integrin activity at the cell membrane of non-circulating epithelial cells aids in maintaining their stable attachment to the stromal cells beneath them, which transmit signals to maintain normal functioning.

Although no true integrin receptors have been found in plants to date, numerous integrin-like proteins have been postulated based on structural similarity to metazoan receptors. Integrinlinked kinases (ILKs) found in plants and animals share a fairly similar basic structure. One of the integrin-linked kinase genes, ILK1, has been demonstrated to have a crucial role in the plant immunological response to signal molecules from bacterial pathogens and plant sensitivity to salt and osmotic stress in the experimental model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. The highaffinity potassium transporter HAK5 and the calcium sensor CML9 interact with the ILK1 protein.

References

1. Rahman M, Masum M, Ullah H, Wajed S, Talukder A. A comprehensive review on COVID-19 vaccines: Development, effectiveness, adverse effects, distribution and challenges. VirusDis. 2022;33(1):1-22.

   [Crossref][Google Scholar][PubMed]

2. Machado BA, Hodel KV, Fonseca LM, Pires VC, Mascarenhas LA, da Silva Andrade LP, et al. The Importance of Vaccination in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A brief update regarding the use of vaccines. Vaccines. 2022;10(4):591.

   [Crossref][Google Scholar]

3. Casado JL, Haemmerle J, Vizcarra P, Rodriguez‐Dominguez M, Velasco T, Velasco H, et al. T‐cell response after first dose of BNT162b2 SARS‐CoV‐2 vaccine among healthcare workers with previous infection or cross‐reactive immunity. Clin Transl Immunology. 2021;10(9):e1341.

   [Crossref][Google Scholar][PubMed]

4. Eliakim-Raz N, Leibovici-Weisman Y, Stemmer A, Ness A, Awwad M, Ghantous N, et al. Antibody titers before and after a third dose of the SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 vaccine in adults aged≥ 60 years. JAMA. 2021;326(21):2203-2204.

   [Crossref][Google Scholar][PubMed]