Journal of Medical & Surgical Pathology
Open Access

An Overview of Pathological Techniques in Medical Diagnosis

Yoghitaka Kojigi^{* *}Correspondence: Yoghitaka Kojigi, Department of Anatomic Pathology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan, Email:

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Description

Pathology is a core of modern medicine, important for diagnosing and understanding the causes and progression of diseases. Pathological techniques are scientific methods used to study tissue, cells and bodily fluids, helping clinicians identify, classify and monitor diseases. These techniques are essential in diagnosing conditions such as cancer, infections, autoimmune diseases and metabolic disorders. With advancements in technology, pathological techniques have become more sophisticated, providing healthcare professionals with detailed and accurate diagnostic information.

Histopathology is one of the most common and important techniques used in disease diagnosis. It involves examining tissue samples under a microscope to identify structural abnormalities or pathological changes. This technique helps diagnose a variety of conditions, including cancers, infections and inflammatory diseases.

The process begins with the collection of tissue samples through biopsies or surgical procedures. The tissue is then fixed in formalin to preserve its structure, embedded in paraffin wax and sliced into thin sections. These sections are stained using dyes, such as hematoxylin and eosin, which allow the pathologist to distinguish different cell types and detect abnormal cells. In cancer diagnosis, histopathology is essential for determining whether a tumor is malignant (cancerous) or benign, its grade (how abnormal the cells look) and its stage (how far it has spread).

Cytopathology focuses on the study of individual cells rather than tissue. It is used to detect cancers and other diseases by examining cells collected from body fluids or aspirates. One of the most common applications of cytopathology is the Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, which is used to detect cervical cancer by analyzing exfoliated cells from the cervix. Other techniques in cytopathology include Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA), where cells are obtained from a lump or mass and analysis of sputum or urine samples for abnormalities.

The key advantage of cytopathology is its ability to quickly provide diagnostic results, especially in cases where tissue biopsies are difficult to obtain. It is a minimally invasive technique and when used in conjunction with histopathology, it can offer a comprehensive diagnosis.

Molecular pathology has revolutionized the diagnosis of many diseases by allowing pathologists to analyze genetic material at the molecular level. This technique involves studying Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and proteins to identify genetic mutations, chromosomal abnormalities and specific biomarkers associated with diseases like cancer, genetic disorders and infections.

Molecular tests, such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), have enabled precise identification of mutations that may drive the development of diseases. In oncology, molecular pathology is particularly important for detecting mutations in cancer-related and guiding personalized treatment plans, such as targeted therapies or immunotherapies. Additionally, molecular pathology plays a significant role in identifying pathogens in infectious diseases, helping determine the best course of treatment.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used to detect specific proteins within tissue samples. It uses antibodies that bind to antigens (proteins) on cells, allowing pathologists to visualize the location and abundance of specific proteins in tissue sections. IHC is often used to diagnose cancers, as certain cancer types express unique proteins that can be detected with specific antibodies.

Conclusion

Pathological techniques are indispensable tools in disease diagnosis, providing critical information that helps guide treatment decisions and improve patient outcomes. From traditional histopathology to advance molecular and immunohistochemical methods, these techniques enable pathologists to identify diseases at the cellular and molecular level. As technology continues to advance, pathological techniques will evolve, allowing for even more precise, personalized and timely diagnoses in the future. Their role in modern medicine cannot be distorted, as they form the strong base of accurate and effective healthcare.