Journal of Research and Development
Open Access
ISSN: 2311-3278
ISSN: 2311-3278
Review Article - (2025)Volume 13, Issue 4
The paper offers an interdisciplinary perspective into the link between physics and dance by analysing and synthesizing ten studies concerning a variety of dance forms: Ballet, Flamenco, Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Irish dance, Salsa, Tango, Breakdance, Hip-hop, and Tap. Each dance form elucidates the manner in which foundational physics concepts-ground reaction forces, impulse-momentum, angular momentum, conservation, rotational inertia, postural control, acoustics-are simultaneously involved in body movements, performance artistry, and injury occurrence. Some of the commonalities, which appear across the styles, involve some dependency on interactions with the ground and rotational mechanics; meanwhile, typical differences lie in aesthetic intentions, axes of rotation, and in acoustic versus kinetic considerations. By studying dance through the lens of physics, the work brings forth its premise that mechanics are applied in actuality by the dancer, while physics gains fertile ground for contextualized instances of human motion. Such an interdisciplinary insight can serve as the impetus for enhanced performance, training safety, and appreciation of dance as applied science and art.
Physics of dance; Biomechanics; Angular momentum; Ground reaction force; Impulse-momentum; Kinematics; Balance; Interdisciplinary research; Dance science; Acoustics
Dance is a greatly expressive and powerful art form, which explores emotions, stories, technique, grit, and drama all in a single performance but beneath the flair, elegance and bold costumes its foundation is governed by the laws of physics. Every leap, spin, and rhythmic movement involves basic principles of physics such as force, momentum, energy transfer, and balance. Exploring this relationship offers an interdisciplinary perspective, merging artistic creativity with scientific reasoning. The mechanics of dance movements are crucial not only for understanding the efficiency and purpose of the performance, but also for improving safety, method, choreography, preventing injury, and deepening the appreciation of dance as a physical discipline.
The literature on this topic spans multiple forms of dance - from classical Ballet pirouettes to Flamenco stamping, Salsa’s Cuban motion, Indian classical forms like Bharatanatyam and Kathak and even contemporary urban dances like Hip-hop and Breakdancing. Each style provides a unique biomechanical and physical lens: Some emphasize vertical ground-reaction forces, others reveal angular momentum strategies, while some highlight the acoustics of sound-producing movements such as Tap dance. Taken together, they demonstrate that dance is a living embodiment of physics principles in action.
By reviewing these published studies, this paper aims to clarify how physical concepts manifest across different dance genres, identify common biomechanical themes, and explore additional factors, such as surface material, that influence performance. Ultimately, the goal is to illustrate the interdisciplinary bridge between physics and dance, showcasing how one discipline enriches understanding and execution of the other.
Dance, specifically Ballet, has always been a quintessential part of her life since Aarushi was 6 years old. From being forced to sign up for Ballet classes to actively attending every session that followed for the next 8 years, leotards and tutu skirts were significant components of my quotidian routine. Aarushi learnt from a young age that when the music is switched on and that beat drops, my body automatically flows into a synchronized ensemble of movements. Continuing to pursue different dance forms subsequent to the completion of my Royal Academy of Dance final year exams, through inter-school competitions and even workshops, Aarushi had a sort of an epiphany that dance was an asylum for me to channel my energy, creativity and confidence. Physics came later a few years after dance. That was when Aarushi was in the sixth grade. Prima facie-from the sixth to the ninth grade, this subject proved onerous. Aarushi looked upon it as the most boring of all the subjects in school, with the toughest equations to remember. But then, in the 10th grade, something clicked. Another epiphany! While learning about sound vibrations Aarushi realised that my goto pastime-listening to music-was grounded on these! As a result, my approach to physics changed. Aarushi began seeing physics everywhere around me-in the Light-Emitting Diode (LED) lights that lit the classroom, the camera lens of her phone, construction of buildings around me and even in the simple act of walking, inter alia. For instance, to move ever forward (literally), the reaction force has to be equal to the weight you apply on the ground. To move ever forward (metaphorically), understanding physics, at least for me, has been an integral part. Aarushi was lucky enough to see the logic behind every magical thing the world has to offer.
Combining two of my biggest passions into one interdisciplinary story has been a journey which culminates in the guise of this article.
This research is conducted as a literature review, synthesizing findings across peer-reviewed studies, biomechanical analyses, and interdisciplinary papers. The process involved:
Article selection
• Ten scholarly articles spanning diverse dance forms (Ballet, Flamenco, Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Irish dance, Salsa, Tango,
• Criteria included explicit mention of physics-related principles such as kinematics, dynamics, acoustics, biomechanics, or energy transfer.
• Articles and papers were selected from credible sources
Thematic grouping
• Each article was analysed for the physics principles it addressed.
• Common themes (e.g., angular momentum, centre of mass, ground reaction forces) were grouped to establish the physics “background concepts.”
• Dance-style-specific insights were extracted for later sections (application to styles, interdisciplinary implications).
Integration
• Concepts were mapped against an outline that ensured structured progression: first establishing physics foundations, then applying them to body mechanics, dance styles, external conditions, and broader interdisciplinary connections.
This methodology ensures that the review does not merely summarize individual articles but synthesizes them into a coherent narrative about the physics of dance.
Background information
Based on the ten articles, the following physics concepts will form the backbone of the review:
Force and newton’s laws of motion: At the centre of all movement is Newton’s three laws of motion.
• First law (inertia): A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion remains in motion unless acted upon by an external force. Hence we require muscular effort to initiate and pause movement whilst dancing.
• Second law (F=m.a): Force is the product of mass (m) and acceleration (a). Magnitude of force is directly proportional to the mass of the body and will move in the direction of its acceleration. This equation governs how much muscular force is needed to move the limbs as well as the entire body.
• Third law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. When a dancer pushes against the ground, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force upward on the dancer. This Ground Reaction Force (GRF) is what propels jumps and helps in balancing.
Work, energy, and power
Energy is the capacity to do work. According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, just transformed from one form to another. Whilst dancing energy is constantly being transformed.
• Work (W=F·d): Work is done when a force moves an object through a displacement. In human motion, muscles do work on bones and joints, displacing them in space.
• Kinetic Energy (KE=1/2 mv2): The energy caused due to motion; the faster an arm/leg moves; the more energy it possesses. v in the equation represents velocity.
• Potential Energy (PE=m⋅g⋅h): Energy stored in bodies due to their position and shape; for instance, the body has more potential energy at the peak of a jump since it has maximum height at that time. m is the mass; g is the acceleration due to gravity; h is the height.
• Power (P=W/t): The rate of doing work, crucial for explosive or grand movements that require large forces in short durations.
Momentum and impulse
Momentum is the quantity of motion an object possesses determined by the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v), and its management is central to dynamic activities.
• Linear momentum (p=mv): The product of mass and velocity. The heavier or faster a body part moves, the more momentum it carries.
• Impulse (J=F·Δt): The rate of momentum. Impulse changes momentum (Impulse-momentum theorem: J=Δp). Spreading an impact force over a longer time reduces peak forces on the body.
Angular motion and rotational dynamics
Rotation involves its own set of principles distinct from linear motion.
• Angular displacement (θ), angular velocity (ω=Δθ/Δt), angular acceleration (α=Δω/Δt): Rotational variations of position, velocity, and acceleration.
• Moment of inertia (I): Inherent property of the body that offers resistance to rotational motion, dependent on mass distribution about an axis (I=Σmr2). r is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the point mass m. A body with mass closer to the axis spins more easily.
• Torque (τ=Iα): The rotational equivalent of force; torque causes angular acceleration.
• Angular momentum (L=Iω): The rotational equivalent of linear momentum; conserved in the absence of external torques.
Balance and centre of mass
Balance is fundamentally a task of managing forces and torques relative to the body’s geometry.
• Centre of Mass (CoM): The average location of the body’s mass. Stability depends on keeping the CoM within the base of support.
• Static equilibrium: Occurs when the sum of forces and sum of torques are both zero (ΣF=0, Στ=0).
• Dynamic equilibrium: In motion, balance requires continuous adjustments to keep the CoM projected within or close to the base of support.
Kinematics of human motion
Kinematics describes motion without reference to the forces causing it.
• Linear kinematics: Position (x), velocity (v=Δx/Δt), and acceleration (a=Δv/Δt).
• Angular kinematics: θ, ω, and α as noted above.
• Trajectory analysis: Determines the path of a point or limb in space, often used to model jumps, steps, or spins.
Kinematics is essential because it provides measurable variables (e.g., joint angles, velocities) that can be tracked independently of muscular force production.
Fatigue and mechanical efficiency
From a physical standpoint, fatigue alters the mechanical efficiency of movement.
• Efficiency (η=(useful work output)/(total energy input)): Fatigued muscles produce less useful work for the same energy input.
• Fatigue often leads to reduced force output (lesser F in F=ma), altered timing of impulses, and reduced ability to impair impacts over time, increasing stress on joints.
Acoustics and wave physics
When impacts create sound, physics explains their propagation.
• Wave equation: v=f·λ, where v is the speed of sound, f is the frequency, and λ is the wavelength.
• Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its mean position. Determines loudness of a sound; linked to impact force.
• Frequency: The number of complete vibrations (compressions and rarefactions) that occur in a second. Determines pitch; in impacts, this depends on the stiffness and shape of the colliding bodies.
• Resonance: Surfaces and materials can amplify certain frequencies when struck, influencing the quality of sound produced.
Surface and material properties
Movement is heavily influenced by interaction with the floor or environment.
• Stiffness (k): Resistance to deformation; stiffer surfaces return more energy but transmit higher peak forces.
• Damping: Dissipates energy, reducing rebound but softening impacts.
• Friction (Ff=μN): Determines grip and sliding behavior; μ is the coefficient of friction, N the normal force. Too much friction can restrict motion; too little causes slips and hence potential injury.
Integration of systems
• Real movement involves simultaneous interaction of all these principles:
• Forces and impulses create motion (linear and angular).
• Energy is transferred and transformed (kinetic ↔ potential, mechanical ↔ acoustic).
• Balance is maintained by controlling the CoM relative to the base of support.
• Surfaces and materials alter how forces are applied and absorbed.
Application and effect of aforementioned concepts to general body movements
Jumps and leaps: When a body leaves the ground, it becomes a projectile.
• Force application (F=ma): To jump, leg muscles apply a downward force on the ground; the ground provides an equal and opposite upward GRF that propels the body. Greater applied force or longer impulse (J=F·Δt) produces a higher vertical velocity.
• Energy conversion: Muscles do work (W=F·d) on the body, storing potential energy as the center of mass rises (PE=m·g·h). At take-off, much of this is converted into kinetic energy (KE=½mv2).
• Projectile motion: Once airborne, horizontal and vertical velocities follow predictable parabolic trajectories (ignoring air resistance).
• Landing: The impulse-momentum theorem explains why bending knees reduces peak force. Extending the time over which the body decelerates spreads the impulse and decreases stress on joints.
Effect: Jumps require a balance of strength, timing, and coordination to optimize height, trajectory, and safe landings. Fatigue reduces the body’s ability to control impulse, increasing injury risk.
Spins and rotational motion
Rotational maneuvers depend on angular dynamics.
• Torque (τ=Iα): Dancers initiate rotation by applying torque through muscles (e.g., twisting the torso, pushing against the ground).
• Moment of inertia (I=Σmr²): Pulling the arms and legs closer to the axis of rotation reduces I, thereby increasing angular velocity (ω). This is conservation of angular momentum (L=Iω).
• Control of rotation: Extending limbs increases I, which slows rotation and allows controlled stopping. Small segmental changes (arm position, leg extension) act as rotational “brakes” or “accelerators.”
• Equilibrium: A stable spin requires maintaining the CoM vertically aligned with the axis of support (e.g., the supporting foot). Misalignment causes wobble or drift.
Effect: Spins demand precise control of limb positions and muscle torque to conserve or redirect angular momentum. Variability in inertia is the dancer’s tool for adjusting speed and balance midrotation.
Landings and impact attenuation
Every landing involves kinetic energy dissipation.
• Impulse and momentum: When descending, the body has downward momentum (p=mv). Upon ground contact, this must be brought to zero. If the landing time is short (stiff joints), the force is large. If the landing time is lengthened (flexed joints, rolling through the feet), peak force is reduced.
• Energy absorption: Soft tissue (muscles, tendons, cartilage) acts as biological dampers, converting mechanical energy into heat or elastic storage.
• Surface effects: A stiffer floor increases rebound but transmits higher peak forces. A damped surface absorbs energy, softening impact but reducing bounce.
Effect: Landings test both the musculoskeletal system and floor properties. Controlled absorption is crucial for performance safety and longevity.
Balance and postural control
Maintaining balance is a problem of physics and geometry.
• Center of mass: Balance requires the vertical projection of the CoM to lie within the base of support. Narrow stances reduce stability; wide stances increase it.
• Equilibrium: For static balance, ΣF=0 and Στ=0. For dynamic balance, micro-adjustments (ankle, hip, torso corrections) continuously restore alignment.
• Torque disturbances: Even small deviations of the CoM from its base create torques that must be counteracted by muscular force.
• Partnered interactions: When two bodies connect (as in lifts or holds), their CoMs combine into a shared system. Stability depends on keeping the combined CoM within the supporting base.
Effect: Postural control requires precise muscle coordination and sensory feedback (vision, proprioception, vestibular input) to manage equilibrium against gravity and momentum.
Rhythmic footwork and percussive motion
Movements involving rapid stamping or tapping illustrate forcefrequency dynamics.
• Force modulation: Each strike applies an impulse to the floor, generating both GRF and acoustic energy.
• Acoustic output: The pitch (frequency) of the sound depends on the stiffness and resonance of the floor-shoe system, while loudness relates to force amplitude.
• Energy efficiency: Repetitive impacts require the body to optimize work done by muscles, using elastic recoil in tendons where possible to reduce energy cost.
Effect: Repetitive rhythmic footwork transforms mechanical force into both kinetic motion and sound energy, demanding careful balance between expressive clarity and injury avoidance.
Fatigue and movement degradation
Physics explains why fatigue alters motor control.
• Reduced force (F = ma): With fatigue, muscles cannot generate as much force, lowering acceleration capacity.
• Impulse changes: Shorter impulse durations or altered timing can increase peak GRFs, stressing joints.
• Efficiency drop (η = (useful work output)/(total energy input)): Fatigued muscles waste more energy as heat, lowering movement economy.
Effect: Fatigue reduces mechanical efficiency, increases injury risk, and disrupts the precision of jumps, spins, and landings.
Partnered and coordinated movements
When two or more individuals move together, additional physical principles come into play.
• Force sharing: Each partner applies equal and opposite forces; mismatched timing leads to instability.
• Momentum exchange: In lifts or turns, momentum is transferred from one body to another, governed by conservation principles.
• CoM coupling: Partners must adjust so that their combined CoM remains supported; otherwise, falls or imbalances occur.
Effect: Partnered motion is a dynamic negotiation of forces and torques, requiring precision timing and awareness to maintain mutual stability.
Literature review: physics and dance across styles
Ground Reaction Forces (GRF), impact and contact mechanics: The mechanics of ground interaction are especially visible in dance forms with percussive or high-impact footwork.
In Flamenco, the amplified slapping motions from zapateado generate very high vertical Ground Reaction Forces (GRF). Biomechanics indicates that peak GRFs were at a significantly higher magnitude than those during functional locomotion, and have implications for loading joints, most notably the knees. Here, Newton's third law takes effect: For every action (downward strike), there is an equal or opposite reaction (upward force from floor). The vertical impulse (∫Fdt) incurred from the foot strikes will also convey auditory cues, as the impact force that produces sound has a relation to the audible dimensions [1].
Similarly in Bharatanatyam, where researchers examined how varying approximate surface material changed the GRFs attained. When dancers executed sequences on granite, rubberized bricks, and wood, granite was observed to have the initial peak GRF; this might be attributed to the relatively stiff compliance (k) of granite, as rubberized flooring generated less GRF (an indication of the energy lost from damping). The concept of load absorbed by the floor reads directly to the physics of materials, as such flooring properties foster appropriate impulse and injury risk (overuse) [2].
Irish dance, whose dance often depicts the stiff effect of footwork while legs and feet land stiffly from straight/ frozen leg positions with minimum use of arms, fatigue studies soon showed altered mechanics of the leg. As dancers tire, landing technique degrades, increasing GRF magnitudes and shifting load distribution toward vulnerable joints such as the ankles and knees. This demonstrates how the impulse-momentum theorem (J=Δp) plays out: less controlled absorption time leads to higher peak forces [3].
Angular momentum, rotation control, and spinning maneuvers
Rotational dynamics are central to many forms.
To illustrate the point of avoiding over-emphasizing angular momentum conservations in dance there is relevance to make comparisons across dance genres, as this can note differences in turning and the influence of angular momentum. A case in point is classical Ballet where pirouettes are again useful to illustrate the point. In a study on single, double and triple pirouettes researchers examined how dancers manipulated their angular momentum (L= Iω) through synchronizing movements of the arm and trunk. They demonstrated that an average angular momentum was produced by athletes pushing off against the floor from a greater vertical groundreaction force and moving limbs to their trunk to also reduce moment of inertia (I). When Ballet dancers placed their arms towards the trunk they rotated faster than when they extended their arms, which perfectly demonstrated the relationship of the conservation of angular momentum [4].
In Breakdance, rotations occur at much higher angular velocities and often around unusual contact points (head, shoulders, or hands). Breakdancers performing choreography including moves such as headspins and windmills depend on torque (τ = Iα) generated by whole-body momentum and that is rerouted through contact with the floor. Unlike Ballet, where control is critical, breakdance underlines maximizing angular speed and sustaining momentum across successive moves. However, this also raises injury risks from repetitive torque loads [5].
In Kathak dancers turn consistently and rapidly. Biomechanical analyses demonstrated the influence of foot posture and mechanics of the foot arch on turning and balance. Correct alignment of the foot maintains a stable rotational axis, which portrays that advancement in maintaining balance while turning is not just dependent on the conservation of angular momentum but is also biomechanically constrained by the structure of the foot [6].
Kinematics, coordination, and multi-joint timing
Different dance styles highlight how motion unfolds in time and space without necessarily focusing on force.
Motion capture and musculoskeletal modeling of Salsa's "Cuban motion demonstrated that the pelvis and spine do not roll arbitrarily but rather the movement is governed by angular velocities and joint-angle cycles about which energy is efficiently dispersed throughout the body. In effect, revealing how dancers coordinate kinematics to vary the energy economies across their joints while also maintaining rhythmic stability [7].
In Hip hop, we used computational kinematics to differentiate genres (locking, popping, breaking etc.). For example, our analysis of angular velocities and frequencies, as well as limb trajectory expansion, revealed statistically distinguishable motion signatures within the style. From a physics perspective, motion signatures represent different kinematic "solutions" to the same mechanical constraints (i.e. position, momentum management and energy cost) [8].
Balance, center of mass, and postural control
Balance is essential across styles, but some highlight it more explicitly.
In Argentine Tango, stability is collective as well as individual. Studies suggest that dancers' stability and postural control improve with Tango training as they have to constantly position the center of mass (CoM) of their partnered movement dynamically and also simultaneously, working to stabilize the total base of support. The dancers are, by definition, managing both static and dynamic equilibrium (ΣF=0, Στ=0), with position shifts that require immediate and calibrated shifts of angular momentum in order to maintain position-specific movement together [9].
In Kathak, foot posture indices (arch index, navicular drop, etc) affect the dancers' ability to maintain stable body posture during repeat spins. Biomechanically, if the dancer's feet are not positioned correctly (foot alignment) when they execute a series of broad spatial spins, the CoM projection will be less stable than if the foot was positioned in full alignment posturing. Here, the geometry of the foot directly impacts the physical stability of the entire body [6].
Fatigue and mechanical efficiency
The effect of fatigue is particularly visible in demanding footwork traditions.
In Irish dance, fatigue significantly alters lower-limb mechanics. Studies found reductions in ankle power generation and compensatory increases in hip/knee motion during landing after jumps. From a physics lens, this represents a breakdown in energy transfer efficiency (η=useful work/total input energy), with fatigued muscles less able to absorb and redirect impact forces effectively [3].
In Breakdance, fatigue compounds the already high mechanical demands of power moves. Repeated torque applications and impacts under fatigue increase injury risk by reducing impulse control and adjusting radial (angular) momentum limits considerably more. This demonstrates how physical efficiency declines when neuromuscular systems can no longer distribute forces evenly [5].
Acoustics and percussive physics
Some styles transform mechanics directly into sound.
In Tap dance, impacts between metal plates on shoes and the floor create percussive sound. Acoustic analysis showed that Tap strikes produce broadband spectra with energy concentrated in critical frequency bands, similar to percussion instruments but with distinct bandwidths. Physics explains this through the wave equation (v=fλ): Impact stiffness and shoe-floor resonance determine frequency, while impact force determines amplitude (loudness) [10].
Flamenco is technically a percussive movement discipline but also generates unique acoustic signatures in the footwork due to the constant/repeated Grand Reaction Forces (GRFs). The fundamental principles of physics including resonance and damping explain why some surfaces produce a better rhythmic effect than others [1].
Commonalities and differences
Commonalities across articles from a physics point of view
Differences across articles from a physics Point of View(POV)
Interdisciplinary overview
Taken together, the literature demonstrates the richness of the physics-dance connection. Mechanics provides a framework for quantifying forces, torques, momentum, and energy across traditions. Material physics explains environmental influences such as floor properties. Acoustics links motion to sound production. Dance, in turn, offers physics real-world laboratories of complex, coordinated motion that stretch the limits of balance, energy efficiency, and rotational control. This dialogue is not merely descriptive: it feeds directly into practical applications such as injury prevention, floor and footwear design, performance optimization, and even therapeutic interventions (as in Tango balance training).
The review shows that the art of dance and the science of physics have a deep interconnectedness, each style expressing the fundamental mechanical principles. Across different traditionsfrom making Ballet pirouettes to Flamenco footwork, from interactions with the floor in Bharatanatyam to power moves in breakdance-the same physical laws govern the change in movement, balance, and transfer of energy.
The studies reviewed reveal some recurring themes. Ground Reaction Forces (GRF) characterize impact-heavy forms of dancing such as Flamenco, Irish dance, and Bharatanatyam, whereby the floor properties and landing strategies have consequences for artistry and injury risk. An elegant change of direction in Ballet, fast spins in Kathak, and power rotations in break-dance are all explained due to angular momentum and its conservation, wherein instantaneous body configuration determines rotational velocity. Kinematic coordination in parentage Cuban motion in Salsa or Hip-hop genres shows how multi-joint timing distributes energy to stylize signatures. Postural stability and center-of-mass control can be found at parentage Tango and Kathak, where it is a scientific endeavor to keep balance and an artistic one at the same time. Even sound, mechanical in nature, abides in Tap and Flamenco.
The umbrella they share is essentially a healthy application of the philosophy that physics is not a lens applied from outside onto dance; it is rather the crucial underpinnings on which dance exists as both performance and practice. A dancer working intuitively with impulse-momentum relations will probably optimize moments of inertia and trade-offs of force along with time, all without having an adapted education in physics. It conversely sets the real-world lab in front of physics for testing concepts in mechanics, material science, acoustics, and human motion.
This paper, while bridging the disciplines, valorizes the interdisciplinary approach: Physics grants philosophy to dance technique and safety, while dance offers the same physics as a human embodiment of its own principles. Together they tell that movement is more than just expression; it becomes a living experiment in mechanics. Such insight can be extended in future work toward injury prevention, dance pedagogy innovation, and the design of dance studios and shoes to meet both scientific efficiency and artistic freedom.
Mentor: Visiting Professor, The Energy and Resources Institute - School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi, India.
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Citation: Maheshwari A, Donde M, Nidamboor J (2025). Physics in Motion: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Dance Mechanics. J Res Dev.13:311.
Received: 16-Nov-2025, Manuscript No. JRD-25-39184 ; Editor assigned: 18-Nov-2025, Pre QC No. JRD-25-39184 (PQ); Reviewed: 02-Dec-2025, QC No. JRD-25-39184 ; Revised: 09-Dec-2025, Manuscript No. JRD-25-39184 (R); Published: 16-Dec-2025 , DOI: 10.35248/2311-3278.25.13.311
Copyright: © 2025 Maheshwari A, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.