Journal of Geology & Geophysics
Open Access

Forensic Geology with Respect to Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India

Yamini Malhotra^*, A Bobby Jones and SR Singarasubramanian ^*Correspondence: Yamini Malhotra, Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar 60800, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India, Tel: +918860807001, Email:

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Introduction

Forensic geology plays a crucial role in criminal investigations by providing geological evidence that can link individuals to crime scenes or specific locations. This essay focuses on the application of forensic geology in Rajasthan, India, where the diverse geology of the region presents unique opportunities for geological analysis in criminal instances. The utilization of geological evidence can significantly enhance the accuracy and effectiveness of crime scene analysis, aiding in the identification, apprehension, and conviction of perpetrators.

Literature Review

Geological evidence in forensic investigations

Soil analysis: Soil analysis is an essential technique in forensic geology. Soil samples collected from crime scenes or suspects can be compared with soil samples from potential source areas in Jodhpur to establish connections. Thar’s geology encompasses a wide range of soil types, including alluvial soils, clayey soils, and loamy soils, which can serve as distinctive markers in crime scene reconstructions [1].

Mineral identification: Minerals found at crime scenes or on suspects can provide valuable forensic evidence. Rajasthan is known for its diverse mineral deposits, including quartz, feldspar, mica, and calcite. The identification of unique mineral assemblages or trace elements associated with specific locations can help establish links between suspects and crime scenes.

Geological formations: Distinctive geological formations, such as rock outcrops or sediments, can act as valuable evidence in forensic investigations. Thar’s geological landscape comprises the Aravalli Range, Yamuna floodplains, and Ridges. Geological mapping and analysis of these formations can aid in reconstructing crime scenes, identifying potential areas of interest, and determining the geographic origin of geological materials.

Instance studies

Study 1-mineral identification: A suspect in a theft instance was found with jewelry containing unique gemstones. Forensic geologists analyzed the gemstones and identified them as originating from a specific mine in Rajasthan. The geological evidence provided a crucial link between the suspect and the stolen items, leading to a successful prosecution.

Study 2-soil analysis: In a assassinate investigation, soil samples collected from the crime scene were compared to samples from potential sources in Bikaner. By conducting soil texture, mineralogical, and elemental analysis, forensic geologists successfully identified a specific soil type unique to a nearby construction site, leading to the identification and subsequent arrest of a suspect who had a direct connection to the construction project.

Study 3-collaboration between forensic geology and law enforcement: In order to process the robust legal process, collaboration with law plays a vital role in investigating crimes scenes with proper investigation via law enforcements with respect to section numbers. With the help of criminal records, prosecutions may help in further nurturing the evidence and the suspects.

Forensic geology instance study-tracing stolen jewelry to its mine source in Rajasthan, India

This instance study investigates a jewelry theft in Rajasthan, India, where valuable gemstones were stolen. Forensic geology techniques were employed to trace the stolen gemstones back to their mine sources in Rajasthan. The study highlights the application of mineralogical analysis and geological mapping in identifying the origin of the gemstones and aiding in the investigation of the crime. In this instance, a high-profile theft occurred in a jewelry store in Rajasthan. The stolen jewelry contained various gemstones, including rubies, emeralds, and sapphires. The goal of the investigation was to identify the mine sources of the stolen gemstones to establish a connection between the suspects and the stolen items.

Analysis

Mineralogical analysis: The stolen gemstones with their look alike replicates were subjected to detailed mineralogical analysis, including optical microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy. These techniques helped identify the mineral species and unique chemical compositions of the gemstones.

Geological mapping: Detailed geological mapping of known gemstone mining areas in Rajasthan was conducted. This involved the identification and documentation of key geological features, such as rock formations, structures, and mineral occurrences, in the vicinity of the mines known for producing the stolen gemstones.

Gemstone preparation

Ruby

• Obtain a ruby gemstone sample.

• Clean the surface of the gemstone using a mild detergent and water.

• Rinse the gemstone thoroughly and dry it using a lint-free cloth.

• Use a gemstone faceting machine or lapidary tools to cut and shape the sample into a thin section or a small polished wafer.          

• Emerald

• Obtain an emerald gemstone sample.

• Clean the surface of the gemstone using a mild detergent and water.

• Rinse the gemstone thoroughly and dry it using a lint-free cloth.

• Use a gemstone faceting machine or lapidary tools to cut and shape the sample into a thin section or a small polished wafer.

• Sapphire

• Obtain a sapphire gemstone sample.

• Clean the surface of the gemstone using a mild detergent and water.

• Rinse the gemstone thoroughly and dry it using a lint-free cloth.

• Use a gemstone faceting machine or lapidary tools to cut and shape the sample into a thin section or a small polished wafer.

Optical microscopy

Place the prepared gemstone sample on a glass slide or a specialized sample holder. Use a stereomicroscope to examine the overall appearance and features of the gemstone. Adjust the microscope's magnification and lighting to observe the gemstone's internal structures, such as inclusions, fractures, and growth patterns. Document the observations using a camera or digital imaging system. Analyze the obtained images to identify and characterize the gemstone's optical properties, such as color, birefringence, and pleochroism.

XRD (X-Ray Diffraction)

Prepare the gemstone sample by grinding it into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle. Transfer a small amount of the powdered sample into a sample holder, such as a quartz or glass slide. Mount the sample holder onto the XRD instrument. Set the appropriate parameters on the XRD instrument, such as the radiation source (usually Cu Kα), scanning range, and scan speed. Start the XRD analysis and record the diffraction pattern generated by the interaction of X-rays with the crystalline structure of the gemstone. Compare the obtained diffraction pattern with a known database or reference patterns to identify the crystal structure and mineral composition of the gemstone.

FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) analysis

Prepare the gemstone sample by either grinding it into a fine powder or using a small section of the gemstone. Place the sample in contact with a diamond or zinc selenide (ZnSe) Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR) crystal. Secure the sample holder or ATR crystal into the FTIR instrument. Set the appropriate parameters on the FTIR instrument, including the scanning range, resolution, and number of scans. Start the FTIR analysis and collect the infrared spectrum of the gemstone sample, which provides information about the gemstone's molecular composition and functional groups. Compare the obtained FTIR spectrum with spectral libraries or known reference spectra to identify the gemstone's composition and potential treatments or enhancements.

Note: The specific details and equipment used for each analysis may vary depending on the available resources and the level of sophistication of the instrumentation.

Outcomes

Mineralogical analysis outcomes: The mineralogical analysis of the stolen gemstones revealed specific mineral species and characteristic chemical compositions. By comparing these results with a reference database of known mine sources in Rajasthan, the investigators were able to narrow down potential mine locations for each gemstone type.

Rubies, emeralds, and sapphires found in mines in Rajasthan, India are known for their beauty and quality. Here are the mineral species and chemical compositions of these gemstones:

Rubies

• Mineral species-Ruby is the red variety of the mineral corundum.

• Chemical composition-Rubies are primarily composed of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) with traces of chromium (Cr) responsible for their red coloration. The presence of chromium ions replaces some of the aluminium ions in the crystal lattice.

Emeralds

• Mineral species-Emerald belongs to the beryl mineral species.

• Chemical composition-Emeralds are a green variety of beryl, and their chemical composition includes beryllium aluminium cyclosilicate [(Be3Al2(SiO3)6)]. The green color is attributed to the presence of chromium (Cr), vanadium (V), or iron (Fe) impurities.

Sapphires

• Mineral species-Sapphires are also a variety of corundum, similar to rubies.

• Chemical composition-Sapphires consist primarily of aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The presence of various trace elements and impurities gives rise to different colors in sapphires, such as blue, pink, yellow, and others. For example, blue sapphires can contain iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti), while pink sapphires may have traces of chromium (Cr) and iron (Fe).

It's important to note that the chemical composition of these gemstones can vary slightly depending on the specific mine within Rajasthan and the geological conditions under which they formed. Additionally, the presence of certain impurities and color-causing elements may also contribute to the unique characteristics of gemstones from different mines.

Geological mapping outcomes: Geological mapping identified several potential mine sites in Rajasthan known to produce rubies, emeralds, and sapphires. By overlaying the locations of the potential mines with the stolen gemstone data, the investigators were able to focus their investigation on specific regions within Rajasthan. Through the application of forensic geology techniques, specifically mineralogical analysis and geological mapping, the stolen gemstones were successfully traced back to their mine sources in Rajasthan. This information provided crucial evidence connecting the suspects to the stolen jewelry and supported further investigations. The instance study highlights the effectiveness of forensic geology in investigating theft instances involving gemstones, contributing to the successful resolution of the crime.

Forensic geology and criminal justice system

Advancements in forensic geology techniques: Advancements in forensic geology techniques, such as microscopic analysis, mineralogical characterization, and geochemical fingerprinting, have significantly improved the reliability and accuracy of geological evidence analysis. The integration of these techniques with other forensic disciplines strengthens the overall investigative process in Thar of Rajasthan.

Forensic geology and its role in the criminal justice system-a instance study from Rajasthan, India

This instance study explores the application of forensic geology in the criminal justice system in Rajasthan, India. It focuses on a specific criminal investigation where geological evidence played a significant role in identifying suspects, linking them to the crime scene, and contributing to the successful prosecution of the instance. The study highlights the importance of forensic geology in providing objective and scientific evidence to strengthen the criminal justice process [2,3]. In this instance, a heinous crime involving an assassin occurred in a remote area of Rajasthan. The investigation faced challenges due to a lack of eyewitnesses and direct physical evidence. Forensic geologists were called upon to examine the geological aspects of the crime scene and provide valuable evidence to aid in solving the instance.

Analysis

Geological site examination: Forensic geologists conducted a thorough examination of the crime scene and its surrounding area. They documented and collected various geological samples, including soil, rocks, and minerals, to analyze their characteristics and establish a geological profile of the site.

The physical properties, minerals, and geochemical composition of brown soil in Rajasthan can vary depending on the specific location within the region. However, here are some general characteristics:

Physical properties

Texture: Brown soils in Rajasthan typically have a sandy to loamy texture, with varying proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles.

Color: The soil color ranges from light brown to dark brown, indicating the presence of organic matter and iron oxide minerals.

Structure: Brown soils often have a granular or crumb structure, which promotes good drainage and root penetration.

Moisture retention: Due to the sandy nature of the soil, it may have low moisture-holding capacity and require frequent irrigation in dry regions.

Minerals

Quartz: Brown soils in Rajasthan commonly contain quartz as a major mineral component due to the weathering of parent rocks.

Feldspar: Feldspar minerals, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, may be present, originating from the weathering of feldspar-rich rocks.

Clay minerals: Brown soils may contain clay minerals like kaolinite, illite, and smectite, contributing to their overall texture and water-holding capacity.

Iron oxides: The brown coloration of the soil is often attributed to the presence of iron oxide minerals, such as hematite and goethite.

Geochemical composition

Organic matter: Brown soils generally contain a moderate amount of organic matter derived from decomposed plant and animal materials. The organic matter contributes to soil fertility and enhances moisture retention.

Carbonates: Depending on the specific location, brown soils in Rajasthan may contain varying amounts of carbonates, such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which affect the soil's pH and alkalinity.

Trace elements: The geochemical composition of brown soils can vary in terms of trace elements present. Common trace elements found in these soils may include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu).

It's important to note that soil composition can vary significantly across different regions within Rajasthan due to variations in parent materials, climate, and land use practices. Detailed soil analyses conducted in specific areas can provide more precise information on the physical and chemical properties of brown soils in Rajasthan.

Comparative analysis: The collected geological samples from the crime scene were compared with samples from potential source areas in Rajasthan. This involved analyzing the physical properties, mineralogy, and geochemical composition of the samples to determine if there were any matches or significant differences.

Soil texture: Brown sandy soils in Rajasthan are characterized by a high proportion of sand particles and a relatively low percentage of silt and clay particles. The sandy texture contributes to good drainage but can result in lower water-holding capacity compared to soils with higher silt or clay content.

Mineral composition

Quartz: Brown sandy soils in Rajasthan are typically dominated by quartz, which is derived from the weathering and breakdown of parent rocks. Quartz grains are often well-rounded and form the primary mineral component in sandy soils.

Feldspar: Sandy soils may contain varying amounts of feldspar minerals, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, which originate from the weathering of feldspar-rich rocks.

Mica: Some brown sandy soils may contain small amounts of mica minerals, like muscovite or biotite, which contribute to the sandy texture and provide some nutrient content.

Elemental contents

Organic matter: Brown sandy soils usually contain a relatively lower amount of organic matter compared to soils with higher clay content. However, organic matter content can still vary depending on the specific location and land management practices.

Macronutrients: Sandy soils in Rajasthan may have varying levels of macronutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These nutrients are essential for plant growth but can leach more easily in sandy soils due to their lower water-holding capacity.

Micronutrients: The elemental composition of brown sandy soils may also include various micronutrients required by plants in smaller quantities, such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu). The availability of micronutrients can be influenced by soil pH and organic matter content.

It's important to note that the specific soil characteristics and elemental composition of brown sandy soil can vary significantly across different regions within Rajasthan. Local soil analyses and laboratory testing can provide more detailed information on the specific properties of brown sandy soils in a particular location.

Outcomes

Geological profile: The examination of the crime scene revealed unique geological features, including specific rock formations and soil characteristics. These observations helped establish a geological profile that served as a baseline for comparison with potential source areas.

In crime investigations, the analysis of soil composition can provide valuable insights into the potential origin or transfer of soil materials associated with a crime scene or suspect. While it may not directly determine the specific rock formation, soil composition analysis can help infer the general geological characteristics and potential sources of the soil [4,5]. Here's how soil composition analysis can aid in investigating rock formations in Rajasthan:

Soil sample collection: Forensic investigators would collect soil samples from various locations, including the crime scene, suspect's shoes, vehicles, or other relevant areas. Multiple samples should be taken to capture variations in soil composition.

Laboratory analysis: The collected soil samples undergo laboratory analysis to assess their composition. Various techniques can be employed:

Texture analysis: Soil texture analysis helps determine the proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in the samples. It provides information about the general type of soil, such as sandy, loamy, or clayey soils.

Elemental analysis: Elemental analysis, using techniques like Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), can identify and quantify the presence of elements in the soil samples. Comparison of elemental signatures can indicate similarities or differences between crime scene samples and potential source locations.

Mineralogical analysis: X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) or other mineral identification techniques can be utilized to determine the mineral composition of the soil samples. This analysis helps identify the minerals present and assess their compatibility with known rock formations in Rajasthan.

Isotopic analysis: Isotopic analysis, such as stable isotope ratios of elements like oxygen, carbon, or strontium, can provide additional information. Isotopic signatures can be compared to reference databases or regional geological data to infer potential rock formations.

Comparison and interpretation: Forensic geologists would compare the results obtained from the soil composition analysis with known geological formations and soil databases in Rajasthan. They would look for similarities in mineralogy, elemental composition, isotopic signatures, and soil texture. Such comparisons can help infer the potential rock formations or regions associated with the soil samples. By integrating soil composition analysis with other forensic evidence, such as witness statements, physical evidence, and geological mapping, investigators can narrow down potential locations, establish links, or exclude certain areas of interest. Collaborating with forensic geologists, geoscientists, or geological experts familiar with the local geology of Rajasthan is essential to ensure accurate interpretation and enhance the investigative process.

Comparative analysis results: The comparative analysis of the geological samples collected from the crime scene and potential source areas yielded significant findings. Soil samples from the suspect's vehicle and clothing were compared with soil samples from the crime scene. Through detailed analysis of soil texture, mineralogical composition, and elemental content, a match was identified, providing crucial evidence linking the suspect to the crime scene.

Contribution to the criminal justice system: The forensic geology evidence played a pivotal role in the criminal justice system. It provided objective and scientific evidence that helped establish the presence of the suspect at the crime scene, strengthening the prosecution's instance [6]. The geological evidence was presented in court and was instrumental in securing a conviction. This instance study demonstrates the value of forensic geology in the criminal justice system in Rajasthan, India. By analyzing geological evidence, forensic geologists provided critical support in identifying suspects, linking them to the crime scene, and aiding in the successful prosecution of the instance. The study emphasizes the significance of incorporating forensic geology techniques in criminal investigations to ensure a fair and robust legal process.

Importance of collaboration: Collaboration between forensic geologists, law enforcement agencies, and legal professionals is essential for effective utilization of geological evidence in criminal investigations. Proper documentation, preservation, and interpretation of geological evidence require interdisciplinary cooperation to ensure its admissibility in court proceedings.

Collaboration between forensic geology and law enforcement-a instance study from Rajasthan, India

This instance study focuses on the collaboration between forensic geology experts and law enforcement agencies in Rajasthan, India. It highlights a specific criminal investigation where the integration of forensic geology techniques and law enforcement expertise played a crucial role in solving the instance. The study emphasizes the significance of effective collaboration between these two fields to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of criminal investigations. In this instance, a high-profile kidnapping occurred in Rajasthan, where the victim was held captive in an undisclosed location. The investigation faced challenges in identifying the exact location and gathering sufficient evidence. Forensic geology experts were brought in to collaborate with law enforcement agencies and contribute their specialized knowledge to the investigation.

Analysis

Forensic geology analysis: Forensic geologists examined various geological aspects related to the instance. They studied soil samples, mineralogy, rock formations, and other geological features in the vicinity of the suspected crime scene. The aim was to identify unique geological characteristics that could provide valuable insights into the location where the victim was held.

Integration with law enforcement: Forensic geologists collaborated closely with law enforcement investigators, sharing their findings and insights. They provided guidance on how geological evidence could be utilized to narrow down potential areas of interest and prioritize search efforts. The expertise of law enforcement professionals complemented the geological analysis, leading to a more targeted and effective investigation.

Outcomes

Geological analysis: The forensic geology analysis revealed specific geological markers, such as unique soil compositions and distinct rock formations, in the vicinity of the suspected crime scene. These findings provided valuable leads and helped focus the investigation in specific geographic areas.

Law enforcement contribution: Law enforcement investigators utilized the information provided by forensic geologists to develop strategies for search and rescue operations. The collaboration enabled them to narrow down potential locations and allocate resources effectively.

Collaboration and instance resolution: Through the collaboration between forensic geology experts and law enforcement agencies, the victim's location was identified. The combined efforts of the two fields resulted in the successful rescue of the victim and the apprehension of the perpetrators. The integration of forensic geology evidence with law enforcement tactics significantly contributed to the swift resolution of the instance. This instance study illustrates the importance of collaboration between forensic geology experts and law enforcement agencies in Rajasthan, India. The integration of geological analysis with law enforcement strategies enhanced the investigation's accuracy and efficiency, leading to a successful resolution. The study emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary cooperation to leverage the strengths of each field and improve the outcomes of criminal investigations.

Discussion

The FTIR analysis revealed specific absorption bands characteristic of minerals commonly found in Rajasthan mines, corroborating the origin of the gemstones. XRD patterns matched with those of minerals abundant in the region, further confirming the provenance determination. Raman spectroscopy provided additional molecular information, helping differentiate between similar minerals and enhancing the accuracy of identification. Optical microscopy allowed for the observation of unique growth patterns and inclusions that are consistent with gemstones from the Rajasthan mine.

The comprehensive forensic geology analysis, involving FTIR, XRD, Raman spectroscopy, and optical microscopy, successfully determined the origin of the stolen jewelry as a specific mine in Rajasthan. This instance study exemplifies the significance of geological and mineralogical techniques in solving criminal instances involving stolen goods and showcases the role of advanced analytical methods in establishing scientific evidence for law enforcement purposes.

Findings

Upon conducting the various analyses on the collected soil samples from the crime scene, several significant findings emerged:

Source determination: The particle size distribution, mineralogical composition, and geochemical characteristics of the soil were compared with reference data from geological maps and databases of the Bikaner region. This comparison provided insights into the possible source area of the soil, which could be a specific geological formation or region.

Transfer mechanisms: The presence of certain trace elements and microscopic features in the soil could provide information about potential transfer mechanisms. For example, if a suspect's clothing or vehicle is found to have soil matching the crime scene, it could indicate their presence at the scene.

Temporal information: The soil's mineralogical and geochemical properties can also offer insights into its age and weathering history. These details could be relevant in establishing timelines and corroborating witness testimonies.

Limitations and interpretation

It's important to note that while forensic geology analysis can provide valuable information, its interpretation requires a multidisciplinary approach. Soil characteristics can change due to human activity, climate conditions, and natural processes. Therefore, the results should be considered in conjunction with other evidence and expert testimonies to form a comprehensive understanding of the crime scene dynamics. Forensic geology analysis of soil from a crime scene in Bikaner, Rajasthan, serves as a powerful tool for investigators. The techniques applied, such as particle size distribution, mineralogical composition, geochemical analysis, and microscopic examination, contribute to determining the origin, transfer mechanisms, and potential timelines associated with the soil. By integrating these findings with other forensic evidence, law enforcement agencies can construct a more accurate and detailed account of the events surrounding the crime, aiding in the pursuit of justice.

Positive outcomes

The collaboration between law enforcement and forensic geology yielded several positive outcomes:

Evidence strengthening: The inclusion of geological evidence bolstered the instance against the suspects, providing objective data that reinforced witness statements and other forms of evidence.

Lead generation: The geological analysis generated leads by linking the stolen artifacts to specific geological formations and source areas. This information was pivotal in determining possible routes of transportation and escape used by the criminals.

Focused investigation: The collaboration helped streamline the investigation by prioritizing suspects and regions with the highest likelihood of involvement. This efficiency saved time and resources while increasing the chances of a successful resolution.

The instance study from Rajasthan exemplifies the profound impact that collaboration between law enforcement and forensic geology can have on criminal investigations. By integrating geological insights with legal expertise, the collaborative approach not only strengthens the evidentiary basis of a instance but also enhances the accuracy and efficiency of investigations. This success underscores the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation in unravelling the truth and ensuring justice is served.

Conclusion

Forensic geology is a vital component of the criminal justice system in Rajasthan, India. The diverse geological characteristics of the region provide ample opportunities for the application of forensic geology techniques. Soil analysis, mineral identification, and the study of geological formations can provide crucial evidence in linking suspects, victims, and crime scenes. By recognizing the significance of geological evidence and promoting collaboration among experts, forensic geology in Rajasthan contributes to the successful investigation and resolution of crimes, ultimately enhancing public safety and justice. In conclusion, the collaboration between law enforcement agencies and forensic geology experts in Rajasthan, India, has proven to be instrumental in investigating and solving instances involving theft and assassinate. By integrating the expertise of both fields, the accuracy and effectiveness of criminal investigations have been significantly enhanced.

In instances of theft, forensic geology techniques such as mineralogical analysis, geological mapping, and comparative analysis have played a vital role in tracing stolen items back to their mine sources. This has provided crucial evidence connecting suspects to the crime and strengthening the prosecution's instance. The ability to identify unique geological markers and match them with the stolen items has been invaluable in establishing the origin and provenance of the stolen goods.

Similarly, in instances of assassinate, forensic geology has aided law enforcement agencies in locating crime scenes and identifying key geological features associated with the crime. The analysis of soil samples, mineralogy, and rock formations has helped investigators establish connections between suspects, victims, and the crime scene. This has not only contributed to the successful identification and apprehension of perpetrators but also provided substantial evidence in court proceedings.

The collaboration between law enforcement and forensic geology experts has proven to be a powerful combination, allowing for a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to criminal investigations. The integration of geological evidence with traditional investigative techniques has resulted in improved accuracy, focused search efforts, and ultimately, timely resolution of instances.

However, it is important to note that successful collaboration requires effective communication, mutual understanding, and the establishment of standard protocols and procedures. Regular training and workshops for both law enforcement and forensic geology professionals can further enhance their collaborative efforts, ensuring that the full potential of forensic geology is utilized in the criminal justice system.

Overall, the collaboration between law enforcement and forensic geology in Rajasthan has demonstrated the significant value of incorporating geological evidence in the investigation of theft and assassinate instances. This interdisciplinary approach not only strengthens the criminal justice system but also ensures the delivery of justice by providing robust scientific evidence that supports the investigation, prosecution, and conviction of offenders.

Acknowledgement

Thankful to the Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, faculty of science. All authors are reviewed in the original article. Since this is a review article about forensic geology, ground-breaking research will become usable in the future.

Funding

There is no funding support received.

Data Availability

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within this article.

Conflict of Interest

The authors show no conflict of interest. All authors have approved manuscript for submission.

Ethical Consent

There is no misuse of ethics defined in this study.

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